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"  I  have  e 
systematic,  ai 
son,  Jr.,  M.. 

"It  is  wit! 
tioners,  as  a 
compendium 
Allen,  Rush 

"After  du 
convinced  of 
Yale  College. 

"  I  have  € 
take  pleasure 
in  the  hands 
Medicine,  Ai 

"I  have  r 
adapted  for  s 
be  known."- 

"I  shall  i 
Surgeons,  ar 
Lynch,  Bait 

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dium  for  students  preparing  for  examination, 
fully  up  to  the  times." — The  Clinic. 

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and  the  amount  of  useful  and,  indeed,  indispensable  information  which  it  con- 
tains is  marvelous.  We  heartily  recommend  it  to  students,  teachers,  and  prac- 
titioners."— Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

"  That  Dr.  Roberts'  book  is  admirably  fitted  to  supply  the  want  of  a  good 
handbook  of  medicine,  so  much  felt  by  every  medical  student,  does  not  admit 
of  a  question." — Students'  Journal  and  Hospital  Gazette. 


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It  is  thoroughly  practical,  and 


P.  BLAKISTOK",  SON  &  CO.,  Publishers  and  BookseUew, 
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BYFORD'S 

Diseases   of  Women. 

THIRD    ENLARGED    EDITION. 

Recommended  as  a    'lext-book  at  Rusk  Medical  College,  Chicago  ;    Woman'i 

Medical  College,  Chicago;  National  Medical  College,  Washington,  D.  C, 

and  other  Medical  Schools. 

THE  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY, 
APPLIED  TO  THE  DISEASES  AND  ACCIDENTS 
INCIDENT  TO  WOMEN.  By  Wm.  H.  Byford,  a.m., 
M.D.,  author  of  "A  Treatise  on  the  Chronic  Inflammation 
and  Displacement  of  the  Unimpregnated  Uterus,"  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children 
in  the  Chicago  Medical  College,  and  in  the  Woman's  Medi- 
cal College,  Chicago.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  In  One 
Volume.     Octavo.     164  Illustrations. 

Price,  Cloth,  $S.OO;    Leather,  $6.00. 

BBOOMMXNDATIOITB. 

"  I  have  read  with  pleasure  your  book  on  Diseases  of  Women ;  it  gratifies 
me  to  indorse  its  teachings." — Prof.  H.  P.  C.  Wilson,  Jr.,  Baltimore. 

"  I  am  well  acquainted  with  the  author,  and  regard  him  an  excellent  practi- 
tioner and  teacher." — Dr.  J.  A.  Ireland,  Professor  of  Obstetrics  and  Gyne- 
cology, Louisville  Medical  College. 

*'  It  is  much  improved  and  is  still  more  what  it  always  was,  a  valuable  practi- 
cal assistant  to  the  practitioner." — Prof  Henry  G.  Landis,  Starling  Medical 
College,  Columbus. 

"  I  find,  from  its  being  so  well  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  science 
it  treats  of,  that  it  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  medical 
student." — J.  Fred  Prioleau,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Gyncecology,  Medical  College 
of  South  Carolina,  Charleston. 

"  The  author  has  presented  to  the  profession  a  concise  and  comprehensive 
treatise  on  the  subject  of  diseases  of  females.  We  congratulate  Dr.  Byford 
upon  his  success,  and  feel  satisfied  that  the  effort  will  be  duly  appreciated  by 
those  whom  the  work  is  intended  to  instruct.  It  is  one  of  the  best  treatises 
on  the  subject  ever  submitted  to  the  American  profession,  and  will  early  be 
acknowledged  as  such.  It  is  well  written,  and  where  necessary,  is  appropri- 
ately illustrated." — Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  Philadelphia. 

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and  general  treatment  are  concerned,  -h-  -s^-  *  This  volume,  hence,  will 
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do  not.  It  cannot  fail  to  be  useful  to  many,  and  will  certainly  prove  interest- 
ing to  all. ' ' — The  American  Journal  of  Obstetrics. 

"  These  important  topics  are  all  handled  vigorously  and  practically.  The 
work  cannot  fail  to  be  in  great  demand,  and  to  exert  a  material  influence  on 
clinical  practice." — New  York  Medical  jfournal. 

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GILLIAM'S 

ESSENTIALS  OF  PATHOLOGY. 

JUST     PUBLISHED. 
Tlie  object  of  this  book  is  to  explain  to  the  student,  in  a  plain,  practical  way, 

the  fundamentals  of  Pathology,  as  an  introduction  to  larger  books. 
THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  PATHOLOGY.      By  D.  Tod  Gilliam,  m.d., 
Professor  of  Physiology,  Starling  Medical  College,  formerly  Professor  of 
General  Pathology,  Columbus  Medical  College,  Columbus,  Ohio.      i2mo. 
296  pages.     47  Illustrations. 

Price,  Cloth,  $2.00. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

A  Review,  by  G.  A.  Piersol,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Normal  Histology  in  the  Medical  De- 
partment of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia.  Published  in  the  Western 
Medical  Reporter,  September,  1883. 

"  Of  no  study  of  the  medical  student  of  to-day  is  a  clear  conception  of  fundamental  prin- 
ciples more  necessary  than  of  pathology ;  yet  how  many  are  the  first-course  men  who  turn  the 
last  page  of  Wagner  or  Rindfleisch  without  having  thoroughly  comprehended  a  tithe  of  the 
broad  and  important  generalizations  without  a  clear  perception  of  which  elaborate  detail  and 
minutia:  are  meaningless.  With  this  fact  fully  appreciated  by  the  author,  the  little  volume 
before  us  was  conceived;  'not  intended  to  supplant  more  pretentious  works  by  allaying, 
but  rather  to  lead  up  to  them  by  kindling,  a  thirst  for  pathological  investigation.'     *     *    * 

"  The  pages  before  us  will  be  found  to  present  an  excellent  epitome  of  the  generally  accepted 
pathological  doctrines,  with  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  broader  and  more  comprehensive 
and  logical  views  of  to-day. 

"The  arrangement  of  the  matter  is  well  adapted  to  present  the  subject   in  a  clear  and 
attractive  manner.     *    *    *    *    We  recommend  every  first-course  student  to  make  himself 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  contents  of  Dr.  Gilliam's  book." 
From  the  Southern  Clinic. 

"  We  will  venture  to  say,  that  both  student  and  practitioner  will  be  likely  to  use  this  in 
preference  to  other  more  pretentious  but  less  valuable  works." 

CLEVELAND'S 

Pocket  Medical  Lexicon. 

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which  it  contains,  make  it  a  valuable  companion  to  the  student. 
THE  PRONOUNCING  POCKET  MEDICAL  LEXICON,  containing  the 
correct  Pronunciation  and  Definition  of  terms  used  in  Medicine  and  the 
Collateral  Sciences,  with  Addenda  containing  Abbreviations  used  in  Pre- 
scriptions, and  List  of  Poisons  and  Their  Antidotes.     By  C.  H.  Cleve- 
land, m.d.     Thirtieth  Edition.     Very  small  64nio. 
Price,  Cloth,  Red  Edges,  75  cents;  Tucks,  with 
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BENRVI.ILEISSia 


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CoMPEND  OF  Anatomy. 


POTTER. 


?QUIZ  COMPENDS.? 

A   NEW    SERIES    OF    BOOKS    FOR    STUDENTS'    USE    IN 

QUIZ-CLASS  AND  EXAMINATION  BOOMS. 


flS*  These  Compends  are  based  on  the  most  popular  text-books,  and 
the  lectures  of  prominent  professors. 

>e®=-  The  Authors  have  had  large  experience  as  Quiz  Masters  and 
attaches  of  colleges,  and  are  well  acquainted  with  the  wants  of  students. 

it^  They  are  arranged  in  the  most  approved  form,  thorough  and 
concise,  with  illustrations  whenever  they  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

>8®="  Can  be  used  by  students  of  any  college. 

4®="  They  contain  information  nowhere  else  collected   in  such  a 
condensed,  practical  shape. 

iC®*  Size  is  such  that  they  may  be  easily  carried  in  the  pocket,  and 
the  price  is  low. 

4®=-They  will  be  found  very  serviceable  to  physicians,  as 
remembrancers. 

LIST   OF   VOLUMES. 

No.  I.  ANATOMY.  By  Samuel  O.  L.  Potter,  m.d.  63  Illustra- 
tions.    Now  ready. 

No.  2.  PRACTICE,  Part  I.  By  Dan'l  E.Hughes, m.d., Demon- 
strator of  Clinical  Medicine,  Jefferson  College,  Philadelphia.  Nov) 
ready. 

No.  3,     PRACTICE,  Part  II.    Same  author.    Ncnv  ready. 

No.  4.  PHYSIOLOGY.  By  A.  P.  Brubaker,  m.d..  Demonstrator 
of  Physiology,  Jefferson  College,  Philadelphia.     Noiv  ready. 

No.  5.  OBSTETRICS.  By  Henry  G.  Landis,  m.d..  Professor  of 
Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children,  Starling  Medical 
College,  Columbus,  Ohio.     Illustrated.     No7v  ready. 

No.  6.  MATERIA  MEDICA.  By  Samuel  O,  L.  Potter,  m.d. 
Now  Ready. 

No.  7.  INORGANIC  CHEMISTRY.  By  G.  Mason  Ward,  m.d.. 
Demonstrator  of  Chemistry,  Jefferson  College,  Philadelphia,  Now 
ready. 

No.  8.  VISCERAL  ANATOMY.  By  Samuel  O.  L.  Potter,  m.d. 
With  illustrations.     Now  ready. 

No.  g.  SURGERY.  By  Orville  Horwitz,  b.s.,  m.d.  With  nu- 
merous Illustrations.     No%v  ready. 

No.  10.  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY.  Including  Medical  Chemistry, 
Urine  Analysis  and  the  Analysis  of  Water,  Air  and  Food.  By 
Henry  Leffmann,  m.d..  Professor  of  Clinical  Chemistry  and  Hy- 
giene in  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic. 

Others  in  preparation. 

Price,  each,  in  Cloth,  $1.00. 
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HENRV  I.  FLKISSia 


?QUIZ-COMPENDS?     No.  1. 


A    COMPEND 


OF 


Human  Anatomy. 


BY 

SAMUEL  O.  L.  [potter,  M.A.,  M.D., 

LATE  A.    A.   SURGEON,   U.   S.   ARMY. 

Author  of  "  An  Index  of   Comparative  Therapeutics,"  "  A  Compend  of 

Materia  Medica,"  *'  A  Compend  of  Visceral  Anatomy,"  and  of  the 

Lea  Prize  Essay  of  Jefferson  Medical  College,  on   "  Dyslalia, 

A  Study  of  Speech  and  its  Defects." 


QHXb 


THIRD  EDITION,  REVISED. 
WITH  SIXTY-THREE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

P.   BLAKISTON,   SON   &   CO. 

IOI2  Walnut  Street. 

1884. 


Copyright, 

1883, 

By  p.  Blakiston,  Son  &  Co. 


PREFACE. 


'T^HIS  little  book  contains  a  series  of  questions  and  answers,  comprising 
a  concise  description  of  the  bones,  articulations,  muscles,  arteries,  veins, 
absorbents,  and  nerves  of  the  human  body,  including  the  heart  and  brain  as 
essential  parts  of  the  circulatory  and  nervous  systems  respectively.  Intended 
especially  for  the  use  of  the  medical  student  in  preparing  for  the  exercises  of 
the  quiz-room  and  for  final  examination,  it  includes  the  essential  points  of  the 
structures  named  above,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  facilitate  their 
acquirement  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  With  this  object  I  have  omitted 
all  superfluous  description,  and  have  confined  the  matter  to  those  points  which 
must  be  known  in  order  to  pass.  In  the  general  descriptions  I  have  closely 
followed  Gray,  and  have  retained  the  Latin  names  so  universally  used  by 
anatomists,  believing  that  in  both  these  respects  my  course  would  be  that  most 
acceptable  to  the  student.  For  many  of  the  special  arrangements  I  am 
indebted  to  the  lectures  of  Professor  W.  H.  Pancoast,  of  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  and  to  the  quizzes  of  Dr.  Henry  Morris,  Assistant  to  the  Chair  of 
Anatomy  in  the  same  Institution. 
Philadelphia,  1882. 

The  exhaustion  of  the  first  edition  of  this  Compend  within  three  months 
after  its  appearance,  manifests  an  appreciation  thereof  on  the  part  of  students 
which  is  extremely  gratifying  to  the  author.  The  text  has  been  carefully 
revised,  and  all  typographical  and  other  errors  found  are  corrected  in  this 
edition. 

U.  S.  Army,  February,  1883. 

A  few  additions  have  been  made  in  this  edition  and  the  arrangement  im- 
proved in  several  places.  The  continued  favor  shown  the  book  is  fully 
appreciated  by  the  author. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  January  i,  1884.  S.  O.  L.  P. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

OSTEOLOGY 9 

BONES  OF  THE  HEAD 12 

The  Orbits 29 

The  FosSiE 31 

The  Sutures  and  Fontanelles 33 

The  Wormian  Bones 33 

The  Hyoid  Bone 33 

Table  of  the  Foramina  at  the  Base  of  the  Skull 34 

BONES  OF  THE  TRUNK 36 

The  Vertebral  Column 36 

The  Thorax 38 

The  Sternum 38 

The  Ribs 38 

THE  PELVIS 40 

BONES  OF  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITY 43 

The  Shoulder 43 

The  Arm 45 

The  Forearm 47 

The  Hand 48 

BONES  OF  THE  LOWER  EXTREMITY 50 

The  Thigh 50 

The  Leg 51 

The  Foot 53 

ARTICULATIONS 55 

MUSCLES  AND  FASCI.E  OF 

The  Head 68 

The  Ear 71 

The  Neck 71 

The  Larynx  and  Epiglottis 75 

The  Back 76 

vii 


VUl  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The  Abdomen 80 

The  Thorax < 82 

The  Perineum 83 

The  Shoulder  and  Arm 85 

The  Forearm 87 

The  Hand 90 

The  Hip  and  Thigh 91 

The  Leg 95 

The  Foot 97 

THE  HEART 99 

ARTERIES 102 

THE  CIRCLE  OF  WILLIS 106 

ARTERIAL  ANASTOMOSES 114 

VEINS 115 

ABSORBENTS 119 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM 120 

THE  BRAIN 120 

THE  SPINAL  CORD 129 

THE  CRANIAL  NERVES 129 

THE  SPINAL  NERVES 133 

THE  SYMPATHETIC  NERVE 136 


lAh^ 


COMPEND  OF  ANATOMY. 


i 


Define  the  term  Anatomy.  Derived  from  the  Greek  dva  ana,  through,  and 
TEiiveiu  iemnein,  to  cut,  it  strictly  means  dissection,  but  is  technically  applied  to 
that  science  which  treats  of  the  structure  of  organized  bodies. 

What  are  the  divisions  of  Descriptive  Human  Anatomy  ?  They  are, — 
Osteology,  the  anatomy  of  the  bones;  Syndesmology ,  of  the  joints;  Myology, 
of  the  muscles ;  Angiology,  of  the  vessels ;  Neurology,  of  the  nerves ;  Splanch- 
nology, of  the  internal  viscera ;  Adenology,  of  the  glands ;  Dermatology,  of  the 
skin  ;    Genesiology,  of  the  generative  organs. 

State  the  number  of  Bones  in  the  Adult  Human  Skeleton.  It  is  variously 
stated  by  different  anatomists.  Excluding  the  teeth,  the  Wormian  and  sesa- 
moid bones,  and  the  ossicles  of  the  middle  ear,  the  whole  number  would  be 
200;  excluding  also  the  2  patellae,  and  the  hyoid  bone,  would  leave  in  the 
skeleton  proper  197  bones. 

Describe  the  Long  Bones.  They  number  90,  act  as  supports,  or  levers, 
and  are  known  by  having  a  medullary  canal  in  the  centre  of  each,  a  shaft 
{diaphysis),  and  two  extremities.  They  are  developed  by  osseous  deposit  in 
cartilage. 

Describe  the  Short  Bones.  Numbering  30,  they  are  found  where  strength 
is  required,  but  limited  motion.  They  also  are  developed  by  osseous  deposit 
in  cartilage. 

Describe  the  Flat  Bones.  They  number  38,  protect  the  viscera  by  forming 
walls  around  them,  and  afford  extensive  attachment  for  muscles.  They  are 
developed  by  osseous  deposit  in  membranes,  and  consists  of  2  dense  layers, 
separated  by  a  cellular  or  cancellated  osseous  tissue,  the  diploe. 

What  are  the  Irregular  Bones  ?  They  are  39  in  number,  and  include  the 
vertebrae,  sacrum,  coccyx,  the  temporal,  ethmoid,  and  sphenoid  bones,  and  the 
bones  of  the  face,  except  the  nasal,  lachrymal,  and  vomer, 

9 


10  ANATOMY. 

Name  the  Bones  of  the  Head.     They  number  22,  and  comprise  the — 
Cranial  Bones  (8) — the  frontal,  2  parietal,  occipital,  2  temporal,  the  sphenoid 

and  the  ethmoid  bones. 
Facial  Bones  (14) — 2  superior  maxillary,  2  malar,  2  nasal,  2  lachrymal,  2 

palate,  2  inferior  turbinated,  vomer  and  inferior  maxillary. 

Name  the  Bones  of  the  Trunk.     They  number  53,  as  follows,  viz. — 
Vertebrce  (24) — 7  cervical,  12  dorsal,  and  5  lumbar  vertebrae. 
Thorax  (25) — 7  pairs  of  true  ribs,  3  pairs  of  false  ribs,  2  pairs  of  floating  ribs, 

and  the  sternum,  articulating  vi^ith  the  bodies  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae. 
Pelvis  (4) — the  sacrum,  the  coccyx,  and  2  ossa  innominata;  each  os  innomi- 

natum  consisting  of  3, — the  ilium,  ischium,  and  pubes. 

Name  the  Bones  of  each  Upper  Extremity.  They  number  32,  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Shoulder  (2) — the  clavicle  and  scapula. 
Arm  (i) — the  humerus. 
Forearm  (2) — the  radius  and  ulna. 
Hand  (27) — 8  carpal  bones, — the  scaphoid,  semilunar,  cuneiform,  pisiform, 

trapezium,  trapezoid,  os   magnum,  and   unciform, — 5   metacarpal,  and    14 

phalanges. 

Name  the  Bones  of  each  Lower  Extremity.    They  number  29,  viz. — 
Thigh  (i) — the  femur. 
Leg  (2) — the  tibia  and  fibula. 
Foot  (26) — 7  tarsal  bones, — the  astragalus,  os  calcis,  scaphoid,  cuboid,  external 

middle  and  internal  cuneiform, — 5  metatarsal,  14  phalanges. 

Name  the  Unclassified  Bones.     They  are  the — 

PatellcB  (2),  which  are  sesamoid  bones,  each  developed  in  the  tendon  of  the 
quadriceps  extensor  femoris  muscle. 

Hyoid  Bone  (i) — the  tongue-bone,  not  articulated  to  the  skeleton. 

Malleus,  Incus,  Stapes  (3  pairs) — the  bones  of  the  middle  ear. 

Sesajnoid  Bones,  of  variable  number,  situated  in  the  tendons  of  the  gastrocne- 
mius and  peroneus  longus  muscles,  and  in  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  great  toe 
and  the  thumb. 

Wormian  Bones  (ossa  triqueta),  sometimes  found  in  the  cranial  sutures,  are 
not  constant  in  number  or  size. 

Name  the  principal  Eminences  on  Bones.  Heads,  are  convex  and 
smooth,  for  articulation  in  movable  joints.  Condyles,  are  irregularly  shaped 
heads.  Trochanters,  when  for  turning  the  bone.  Tuberosities,  are  broad, 
uneven  prominences.  Tubercles,  are  small  tuberosities.  Spines,  or  Spinous 
processes,  when  sharp  and  slender.     Apophysis,  is  a  process  which  has  been  an 


BONES.  11 

Epiphysis,  or  separated  from  the  shaft  by  cartilage,  but  has  become  united 
thereto  by  ossification. 

What  other  names  are  given  to  Bony  Prominences  ?  There  are  sev- 
eral adjectives  applied  to  them  from  their  fancied  resemblances,  such  as — - 
Azygos,  without  a  fellow ;  Clinoid,  like  a  bed ;  Coracoid,  like  a  crow's  beak ; 
Coronoid,  like  a  crown  ;  Hamular,  hook-like;  Malleolar,  like  a  mallet;  Mas- 
toid, like  a  nipple;  Odontoid,  tooth-like;  Pterygoid,  wing-like;  Rostrum,  a 
beak ;  Spinous,  thorn-like ;  Styloid,  pen-like  ;  Squamous,  scaly ;  Vaginal,  en- 
sheathing,  etc. 

Name  the  Cavities  of  Bones.  Articular  cavities  are  called  Cotyloid,  cup- 
like ;  Glenoid,  shallow ;  Trochlear,  pulley-like ;  Facet,  if  smooth ;  Alveolar,  or 
Alveoli,  when  socket-like.  Non-articular  cavities  are  named  fossae,  sinuses, 
aqueducts,  foramina,  canals,  fissures,  notches,  cells,  grooves,  depressions,  etc. 

What  is  the  Composition  of  Bone  ?  Organic  or  animal  matter,  about  i^, 
consisting  of  gelatin,  vessels  and  fat.  Inorganic,  or  mineral,  about  ^,  con- 
sisting of  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  calcium  (621^  per  cent.),  with  fluoride 
of  calcium,  phosphates  of  magnesium,  sodium,  and  chloride  of  sodium  (41^ 
percent.).  Heaty^'xW  remove  the  organic  matter  and  leave  the  inorganic; 
dilute  Nitric  or  Hydrochloric  acid  will  remove  the  inorganic,  and  leave  the 
organic.  In  old  age  the  inorganic  constituents  predominate,  and  the  bones 
are  brittle ;  in  youth  the  organic  predominate,  and  epiphyseal  dislocation  is 
more  common  than  fracture,  especially  in  the  long  bones  of  the  extremities. 

(Describe  the  Structure  of  Bone.  Bone  is  composed  of  an  outer  compact 
layer,  and  an  inner  cellular  or  spongy  structure.  It  is  surrounded,  except  at 
the  articular  cartilages,  by  a  vascular  fibrous  membrane,  the  Periosteum,  which 
receives  the  insertions  of  all  tendons,  ligaments,  etc. ;  and  the  central  cavity 
of  long  bones  is  lined  by  a  similar  structure,  the  Endosteum.  A  transverse 
section  of  bone,  examined  microscopically,  shows — 

Haversian  Canals,  diameter  -^^^  inch,  for  the  passage  of  vessels. 
Canaliculi,  diameter  x^^^ij  inch,  radiating  from  the  canals,  and  connecting 

them  with  the  lacunae. 
Lacunce,  arranged  circularly  around  the  canals,  and  contain  the  bone- cells, 

appearing  as  irregular  dark  spaces. 
Haversian  Spaces,  connect  the  canals  with  the  medullary  spaces,  and  divide 
one  Haversian  system  from  another.     An  Haversian  System  comprises 
an  Haversian  canal  with  its  lamellae,  lacunae,  and  canaliculi. 
Concentric  Lamellce  of  bone  tissue,  around  the  canals. 
Circumferential  Lamellce,  are  bone  layers  binding  the  canals  together. 
Interstitial  Lamellce,  woven  in  between  the  concentric  lamellae. 


12  ANATOMY. 

What  is  the  Marrow  of  Bone  ?  In  young  bones  a  tenacious,  transparent 
fluid,  free  from  fat.  In  adult  bones  of  a  yellow  color,  consisting  of  fat  in  vary- 
ing proportion  and  extractive  matters.  It  is  found  in  the  medullary  canal,  the 
cancellous  texture,  and  the  large  Haversian  spaces. 

What  Vessels  are  found  in  Bones  ?  Arteries,  veins,  and  some  say  lym- 
phatics. The  Arteries  are, — the  nutrient,  entering  at  the  nutrient  foramen; 
the  articular,  nourishing  the  cancellous  structure ;  and  the  periosteal,  which 
supply  the  periosteum  and  the  compact  structure.  The  Veins  emerge  from 
the  ends,  the  shaft,  and  from  the  nutrient  foramen. 

Describe  the  process  of  Ossification.  The  site  of  bone  is  first  occupied 
by  a  mucoid  substance,  which  becomes  temporary  cartilage  {blastema)  in  the 
second  month  of  foetal  life.  The  young  bone-cells  {osteo-blasts)  are  then  de- 
posited in  the  cartilage  at  certain  points,  and  their  deposition  and  subsequent 
pressure  cause  the  absorption  of  the  cartilage.  In  most  of  the  bones  of  the 
head  and  face,  ossification  is  intra-membranous  instead  of  intra-cartilaginous. 
The  first  bones  in  which  ossification  appears  are  the  clavicle  and  inferior  max- 
illary (5th  to  7th  foetal  week);  the  last  is  the  pisiform  bone  (12th  year). 
Epiphyses  ossify  after  birth  and  begin  uniting  to  the  bone  from  the  age  of  pu- 
berty, and  in  the  inverse  order  to  that  in  which  their  ossification  began,  except 
the  lower  end  of  the  fibula,  which  ossifies  and  is  joined  to  the  shaft  earlier 
than  its  upper  end. 

THE  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD. 

THE  FRONTAL  BONE. 

Describe  the  points  on  its  vertical  portion.  They  are  as  follows: — 
Externally, — 

Frontal  Eminences,  one  on  each  side  of  the  median  line. 

Depression,  marking  the  site  of  the  frontal  suture  before  obliteration. 

Superciliary  Ridges,  behind  which  are  the  frontal  sinuses. 

Supraorbital  Notches  or  Foramina,  in  the  supraorbital  arches,  at  about  their 
inner  third,  for  the  supraorbital  vessels  and  nerves. 

Nasal  Eminence,  at  lower  end  of  the  frontal  depression. 

External  Angular  Processes,  articulate  with  the  malar  bones  and  form  the 
anterior  part  of  the  temporal  ridges. 

Internal  Angular  Processes,  articulate  with  the  lachrymal  bones. 

Nasal  Spine  and  Notch,  between  the  internal  angular  processes. 
Internally, — 

Groove,  for  superior  longitudinal  sinus  and  the  falx  cerebri. 

Frontal  Crest,  for  attachment  of  the  falx  cerebri. 

Foramen  Ccecum,  for  a  small  vein  to  the  longitudinal  sinus. 

Depressions  and  Elevations,  for  convolutions  of  the  brain. 


THE  PARIETAL  BONES.  13 

Between  the  two  tables  of  the  vertical  portion  in  the  adult  are  the — 

Frontal  Sinuses,  two  spaces  at  the  anterior  inferior  part  of  the  bone,  which 
are  lined  with  mucous  membrane,  and  open  into  the  middle  meatus  of  the 
nose  by  means  of  an  Infundibuhwi  for  each. 
Describe  its  horizontal  portion,  or  orbital  plates.     They  each  present  the 
following  points,  viz. — 

Fossa,  for  the  lachrymal  gland,  near  the  external  angular  process. 
Depression,  at  the  nasal  margin  for  the  pulley  of  the  superior  oblique  muscle. 
Ethmoidal  Notch,  having  the  following  foramina  on  its  margin. 
Anterior  Ethmoidal  Foramen,  for  anterior  ethmoidal  vessels  and  the  nasal 

branch  of  the  ophthalmic  nerve. 
Posterior  Ethmoidal  Foramen,  for  posterior  ethmoidal  vessels. 
Grooves,  on  the  cranial  surface,  for  branches  of  the  anterior  and  middle 

meningeal  arteries. 
Describe  its  articulations,  development,  and  muscles.  The  frontal 
articulates  with  12  bones, — the  sphenoid,  ethmoid,  2  parietal,  2  nasal,  2  supe- 
rior maxillary,  2  lachrymal,  and  2  malar.  It  is  developed  by  2  centres  in  mem- 
brane, I  for  each  lateral  half.  The  muscles  attached  to  it  are  3  pairs, — the 
temporal,  corrugator  supercilii,  and  orbicularis  palpebrarum. 

THE   PARIETAL   BONES. 

Describe  their  general  characteristics.  They  are  2  quadrilaterally-shaped 
bones  situated  at  the  superior  and  lateral  regions  of  the  cranium.  The  supe- 
rior border  of  each  joins  the  other  by  the  Sagittal  Suture  ;  the  anterior  border 
joins  the  frontal  bone  by  part  of  the  Coronal  Suture ;  the  posterior  border 
articulates  with  the  occipital,  forming  the  Lambdoidal  Suture ;  the  inferior 
border  with  the  sphenoid  and  temporal  bones.  Forming  the  lateral  walls  of 
the  skull  they  are  named  parietal,  from  paries,  a  wall. 

Describe  the  points  on  each  Parietal  bone.  Externally  the  bone  is  con- 
vex and  presents  for  examination, — 

Temporal  Ridge,  continuous  with  the  same  on  the  frontal  bone. 

Parietal  Eminence,  the  point  where  ossification  commenced. 

Parietal  Foramen,  close  to  the  upper  border,  transmits  a  vein  to  the  superior 
longitudinal  sinus.     Is  not  constant. 
Internally,  the  bone  is  concave,  and  marked  by — 

Depressions  for  the  Pacchionian  bodies,  and  for  the  cerebral  convolutions. 

Furrows,  for  branches  of  the  middle  meningeal  artery. 

Groove,  for  the  lateral  sinus,  at  the  posterior  inferior  angle. 

Half -groove,  along  the  upper  border,  for  the  superior  longitudinal  sinus  of 
the  dura  mater. 
2 


14  ANATOMY. 

Describe  their  articulations,  development,  and  muscles.  Each  parietal 
bone  articulates  with  5  bones, — the  frontal,  occipital,  sphenoid,  temporal,  and 
opposite  parietal.  It  is  developed  from  I  centre  in  membrane.  The  only  muscle 
attached  to  it  is  the  temporal. 

THE   OCCIPITAL   BONE. 
Describe  its  general  features  and  surfaces.     It  is  trapezoidal  in  form, 
curved  upon  itself,  and  placed  at  the  posterior  and   inferior  region  of  the 
cranium.     Externally  its  surface  is  convex  and  presents  for  examination  the 
following,  viz. — 

External  Occipital  Protuberance,  and  Crest,  for  the  attachment  of  the  liga- 

mentum  nuchse. 
Superior  and  Inferior  Curved  Lines,  extending  outwards  on  each  side  of 

the  external  occipital  crest. 
Foramen  Magnum,  transmitting  the  medulla  oblongata  and  its  membranes, 

the  vertebral  arteries,  and  the  spinal  accessory  nerves. 
Condyles,  2  in  number,  for  articulation  with  the  atlas  vertebra. 
Tubercles,  I  on  each  condyle,  for  the  check  ligaments. 
Anterior  Condyloid  Foramina,  2,  for  the  hypoglossal  nerves. 
Posterior  Condyloid  Foramina,  2,  (often  absent)  for  veins. 
Jugular  Processes,  2,  each  helping  to  form  the  foramen  lacerum  posterius 
basis  cranii. 
Internally,  the  surface  is  concave,  showing — 

Fossce,  4,  for  the  cerebellar  and  posterior  cerebral  lobes. 

hiternal  Occipital  Protuberance,  where  6  cranial  sinuses  meet  to  form  the 

torcular  (wine-press)  Herophili. 
Crucial  Ridge,  the  vertical  portion  for  the  falx  cerebri  and  falx  cerebelli ; 
the  transverse  portion  for  the  tentorium  cerebelli,  having  also  a  groove  for 
the  lateral  sinus. 
Groove,  for   the  lateral   sinus,  and   the  inferior  petrosal  sinus,  along  the 

postero-Iateral  border. 
Internal  Openings  of  the  foramina  described  above. 

Describe  the  Basilar  Process  of  the  Occipital.  It  lies  in  front  of  the 
foramen  magnum,  articulates  with  the  body  of  the  sphenoid  bone,  smooth  and 
grooved  internally  for  the  medulla  oblongata  and  pons  varolii,  which  lie  upon 
it;  rough  inferiorly  for  the  attachment  of  muscles,  and  presenting  the — 

Pharyngeal  Spine,  for  the  attachment  of  the  superior  constrictor  muscle  of 

the  pharynx  and  its  tendinous  raphe. 
Describe  its  articulations  and  development.      The  occipital   articulates 
with    6    bones, — the    2    parietal,  2    temporal,  sphenoid,  and    atlas.      It    is 
developed  by  4  centres,  i    each  for  the  posterior  part,  the  basilar   process. 


THE  TEMPORAL   BONES. 


16 


and  the  2  condyles;   its  ossification  being  completed  about  the  6th  year  of 
age. 

What  muscles  are  attached  to  the  Occipital  Bone?  There  are  12 
muscles  attached  on  each  side  to  the  following  portions,  viz. — 

Superior  Curved  Line  3 — the  occipito-frontalis,  trapezius,  and  sterno-cleido- 

mastoid. 
space  between  the  curved  lines  2 — the  complexus  and  splenius. 
Space  below  the  inferior  curved  line  3 — the  obliquus  capitis  superior,  rectus 

capitis  posticus  major  and  minor. 
Basilar  Process  3 — the  superior  constrictor  of  the  pharynx,  rectus  capitis 

anticus  major  and  minor. 
Jugular  Process  i — the  rectus  capitis  lateralis. 

THE  TEMPORAL  BONES. 
Describe  their  situation  and  divisions.  They  are  situated  at  the  inferior 
lateral  portions  of  the  skull,  and  contain  the  organs  of  hearing.  Each  bone  is 
divided  into  3  parts,  the  Squamous'^  (scale-like).  Mastoid^  (nipple-like),  and 
Petrous c  (hard);  and  it  is  named  from  being  the  site  of  the  first  gray  hairs 
[tempus,  time). 

Describe  the  Squamous  Portion.  It  is  a  semicircular  plate,  smooth  ex- 
ternally, and  grooved  internally  for  the  middle  meningeal  artery,  vi^ith  de- 
pressions for  the  cerebral  convolutions.     Externally  are  seen  the — 

Zygomatic    Process, d   or     zygoma.  Fig.  i. 

arising  by  3  roots,  and  extend- 
ing forwards  to  articulate  with 
the  malar  bone. 

Zygomatic  Tubercle  e  at  the  base 
of  the  process,  for  the  exter- 
nal lateral  ligament  of  the  lower 
jaw. 

Eminentia  Artictclaris,  formed  by 
the  anteriofroot  of  the  zygoma. 

Glenoid  Possa,£:  between  the  ante- 
rior and  middle  roots  of  the  zygo- 
ma ;  its  anterior  part  receives  the 
condyle  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  is 
covered  with  cartilage ;  its  posterior  part  lodges  the  parotid  gland. 

Glasserian  Fissure,  divides  the  glenoid  fossa;  it  transmits  the  laxator 
tympani  muscle,  the  tympanic  artery,  and  the  processus  gracilis  of  the 
malleus. 


16 


ANATOMY. 


Opening  of  the  Canal  of  Hugier,  lies  in  the  angle  between  the  squamous 
and  petrous  portions  of  the  bone;  and  transmits  the  chorda  tympani  nerve. 

Temporal  Kidge,/  in  part. 

Describe  the  Mastoid  Portion.  It  projects  like  a  nipple  from  the  inferior 
portion  of  the  bone  posteriorly.  Internally  it  is  grooved  for  the  lateral  sinus  \^ 
externally  are  seen  the — 

Mastoid  Foratnen^h.  the  largest  of  several  foramina,  for  a  vein. 

Mastoid  Process,  at  the  tip,  for  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid,  splenius,  and 
trachelo  mastoid  muscles. 

Digastric  FossaJ  for  the  posterior  belly  of  the  digastric  muscle. 

Occipital  Groove^  for  the  occipital  artery. 

Mastoid  Cells,  in  the  interior  of  the  mastoid  process,  open  on  the  posterior 
vs^all  of  the  middle  ear,  and  are  lined  with  mucous  membrane. 

Describe  the  Petrous  Portion.  It  is  very  hard,  pyramidal  in  form,  con- 
tains the  internal  and  middle  ear,  projects  inwards  and  forwards,  and  presents 
a  base,  an  apex,  three  surfaces,  and  three  borders. 

On  the  Base  are  seen,  the — 


Fig.  2. 


Meatus  Auditorius  Externus,i  the 
external  opening  of  the  ear. 

Auditory  Process,  a  bony  ring  for  the 
external  cartilage  of  the  ear. 

Apex  lies  internally,  at  the  base  of  the 
skull,  forming  the  outer  boundary  of 
the  foramen  lacerum  medium,  and 
contains  the  internal  carotid  canal. 

Anterior  Surface,  presents  from  within, 
outwards — 

Opening  of  the  Carotid  Canal, ^'^  for 
the  internal  carotid  artery  and 
plexus. 

Depression,  for  the  Gasserian  ganglion  of  the  5th  pair  of  cranial  nerves. 
Biatus  Fallopii,  for  great  petrosal  nerve  and  an  artery. 
Foramen,  for  small  petrosal  nerve. 

Ffuinence,  over  the  superior  semicircular  canal  of  the  ear. 
Depression,  over  the  tympanum. 
Posterior  Surface,  presents — 

Meatus  Auditorius  Internus}^  transmits  the  7th  and  8th  pairs  of  cranial 

nerves  and  the  auditory  artery,  and  lodges  a  process  of  dura  mater. 
Opening  of  the  Aqueductus  Vestibuli^^  transmits  to  the  vestibule  a  small 
artery  and  vein,  and  lodges  a  process  of  dura  mater. 


THE  TEMPORAL  BONES.  17 

Inferior  surface,  presents  from  within  outwards — 

Rough   Quadrilateral  Surface,^^  for  the   origin  of  the  tensor  tympani  and 

levator  palati  muscles. 
Opening  of  the  Carotid  Canal,  transmitting  the  internal  carotid  artery,  and 

the  carotid  pleficus  of  the  sympathetic  nerve. 
Aquedudus  Cochlea,  transmitting  a  vein  from  the  cochlea. 
Jugular  Fossa,  a  depression  for  the  sinus  of  the  internal  jugular  vein,  form- 
ing with  the  occipital  bone  the  foramen  lacerum  posterius,  which  trans- 
mits that  vein  and  the  8th  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  etc.     i^See  page  35.) 
Foramen  for  Jacobsoft's  Nerve  (tympanic  branch  of  the  glosso-pharyngeal), 

in  the  ridge  between  the  jugular  fossa  and  the  carotid  canal. 
Forafuen  for  Arnold's  Nerve  (auricular  branch  of  the  pneumogastric),  in 

the  outer  wall  of  the  jugular  fossa. 
Jugular  Surface,  for  articulation  with  the  jugular  process  of  the  occipital  bone. 
Vaginal  Process,^  ensheathing  the  root  of  the  styloid  process. 
Styloid  Process}^  a  long  projection  for  the  stylo-pharyngeus,  stylo-hyoid, 
and  stylo-glossus  muscles  (3);    and  the   stylo-hyoid  and  stylo-maxillary 
ligaments  (2),  which  are  attached  thereto. 
Stylo-mastoid  Foramen}^  between  the  styloid  and  mastoid  processes,  for  the 

exit  of  the  facial  nerve,  and  the  entrance  of  the  stylo-mastoid  artery. 
Auricular  Fissure^  for  the  exit  of  Arnold's  nerve. 
In  the  angle  between  the  petrous  and  squamous  portions,  are  seen  the — 

Septum  Tubes,  a  lamina  separating  the  following  canals.     Its  inner  end  pro- 
jects into  the  tympanum,  and  is  called  the  Processus  cochleari  formis. 
Opening  of  the  canal  for  the  tensor  tympani  muscle. 
Osseous  Opening  oi  \.\\e  Eustachian  tul)e«  inferiorly. 
The  Anterior  Border  articulates  partly  with  the  spinous  process  of  the  sphe- 
noid bone. 
The  Posterior  Border  assists  in  forming  the  jugular  foramen,  and  is  grooved 

for  the  inferior  petrosal  sinus. 
The  Superior  Border  separates  the  anterior  fossa  of  the  skull  from  the  middle 
fossa ;  to  it  is  attached  the  tentorium  cerebelli,  and  it  is  grooved  for  the  su- 
perior petrosal  sinus. '^ 

Describe  its  articulations  and  development.  The  temporal  articulates 
with  5  bones, — the  occipital,  parietal,  sphenoid,  malar,  and  inferior  maxillary. 
It  is  developed  by  4  centres,  one  each  for  the  squamous  portion,  styloid  pro- 
cess, and  auditory  process,  and  one  for  the  petrous  and  mastoid  portions.  Its 
ossification  is  completed  about  the  2d  or  3d  year. 

What  muscles  are  attached  to  it  ?  There  are  14  muscles  attached  to  the 
following-named  portions.     To  the — 

Squamous  Portion  2, — ^the  temporal  and  masseter. 

B 


2* 


18 


ANATOMY. 


Mastoid  Portion  6, — the  occipito-frontalis,  sterno-cleido-mastoid,  splenius 

capitis,  trachelo-mastoid,  digastric,  and  retrahens  aurem. 
Petrous  Portion  3, — the  tensor  tympani,  levator  palati,  and  stapedius. 
Styloid  Process  3, — the  stylo-glossus,  stylo-hyoid,  and  stylo-pharyngeus. 

THE  SPHENOID  BONE. 

Describe  its  Position  and  Form.  Wedged  in  between  the  bones  of  the 
skull  anteriorly,  it  resembles  a  bat  with  out-stretched  wings.  It  is  named 
from  the  Greek  word  a^/jf  sphane,  a  wedge,  enters  into  the  formation  of  5 
cavities,  4  fossse,  3  fissures,  and  has — 

A  Body.  2  Pterygoid  Processes,  12  Foramina. 

2  Greater  Wings.^  2  Styloid  Processes.  12  pairs  of  Muscles. 

2  Lesser  Wings. ^  6  Clinoid  Processes.  12  Articulations. 

10  Points  of  Ossification.  3  Lesser  Processes. 

Describe  the  Body  of  the  Sphenoid  Bone.  Placed  in  the  median  line, 
cuboid  in  shape,  it  presents  on  its  Upper  Surface  from  before  backwards, 
the  following  points,  viz. — 

Y^^  -  Ethmoidal  Spine^  ar- 

ticulating with    the 
ethmoid  bone. 
A     Smooth     Surface, 
grooved  for  the  ol- 
factory nerves. 
Optic  Groove,  support- 
ing the  commissure 
of  the  optic  nerves. 
Olivary     Process,     an 
olive  -  shaped    emi- 
nence    behind    the 
optic  groove. 

Middle  Clinoid  Processes,  bounding  the  sella  Turcica  in  front. 
Sella  Turcica^^  (Turkish  saddle),  lodges  the  pituitary  body  and  the  circular 

sinus  of  the  brain. 
Dorsum  Sella  (back  of  the  saddle),  grooved  for  the  6th  nerves. 
Posterior  Clinoid  Processes,^  for  attachment  of  the  tentorium  cerebelli. 
Grooves,  laterally,  for  the  cavernous  sinus  and  internal  carotid  artery. 

The  posterior  surface  is  rough  and  quadrilateral  '}^  it  articulates  with  the 
basilar  process  of  the  occipital  bone,  ossification  being  completed  from  the 
1 8th  to  the  20th  year. 


THE    SPHENOID    BONE. 


19 


The  anterior  surface  is  nearly  vertical,  and  presents  the — 

Lamella,  in  the  median  line,  articulating  with  the  perpendicular  plate  of 
the  ethmoid  bone,  and  forming  part  of  the  nasal  septum. 

Opening  of  the  Sphenoidal  Sinuses,^  or  cavities  in  the  body  of  the  bone 
which  exist  in  adults,  not  in  children. 

Sphenoidal  Tui'binated  Bones  (pyramids  of  Wistar),  which  partially  close 
the  sinuses,  and  articulate  with  the  ethmoid  and  palate  bones. 
The  inferior  surface  helps  to  form  the  nasal  fossae,  and  presents  the — 

Rest  mm  yd  which  articulates  with  a  groove  on  the  vomer. 

Vaginal  Processes,  I  on  each  side  of  the  rostrum. 

Piery go-palatine  Grooves,  which,  with  the  sphenoidal  processes  of  the  palate 
bones,  form  the  pterygo-palatine  canals,  for  the  transmission  of  the  pterygo- 
palatine arteries  and  nerves. 

Describe   the   Greater   Wings  of  the   Sphenoid.      Each  vising,   on   its 
superior  surface,  presents  the  following  points,  viz. — 
Foramen      Rotun- 

dum^     for     the 

superior       max- 
illary      division 

of  the  5th, 
Foraj?ien      Ovale? 

for    the   inferior 

maxillary     divi- 
sion of  the    5th 

n  erve ,       the 

small       petrosal 

nerve,   and    the 

small    men- 

ingeal  artery. 
Foramen  Vesalii,  transmitting  a  small  vein. 
Foramen  Spinosum}^  transmitting  the  middle  meningeal  artery. 
The  anterior  surface  assists  in  forming  the  external  wall  of  the  orbit,  the 
spheno-maxillary  and  sphenoidal  fissures.     It  articulates  with  the  frontal  and 
malar  bones,  and  presents  a — 

Notch,  transmitting  a  branch  of  the  ophthalmic  arteiy. 

Spine,  for  part  of  the  lower  head  of  the  external  rectus  muscle. 

External  Orbital  Foramina,  transmitting  arterial  branches. 
The  external  surface  presents  the  following  points, — 

Pterygoid  Ridge,  dividing  the  temporal  fossa  from  the  zygomatic. 

Spine  of  the  Sphenoid}^  to  which  are  attached  the  internal  laternal  ligament 

of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  laxator  tympani  muscle. 


20  ANATOMY, 

The  circumference  is  partly  serrated  for  articulation  with  the  temporal  and 
frontal  bones,  and  partly  smooth  for  the  anterior  margin  of  the  foramen 
lacerum  medium  and  the  inferior  margin  of  the  sphenoidal  fissure,  which 
margins  it  assists  in  forming. 

Describe  the  Lesser  Wings^of  the  Sphenoid.  Called  also  the  Pro- 
cesses of  Ingrassias,«  they  terminate  internally  in  the  Anterior  C linoi J  Pro- 
cesses ;^  iheir  dLiiiQuox  horHtxs  articulate  with  the  orbital  plate  of  the  frontal 
bone,  the  posterior  are  free,  dividing  the  anterior  cerebral  fossa  from  the 
middle.     Connected  intimately  with  each  of  these  wings  are  the — 

Optic  Foramen,^  formed  by  the  separation  of  its  roots,  and  transmitting  the 

optic  nerve  and  the  ophthalmic  artery. 
Sphenoidal  Fissure^  or  foramen  lacerum  anterius,^  is  bounded  above  by 
the   lesser  wing,  below  by  the  greater  wing,  and   transmits  the  3d,  4th, 
ophthalmic  division  of  the  5th,  and  the  6th  nerves,  the  ophthalmic  vein, 
branches  of  the  lachrymal  and  middle  meningeal  arteries,  some  filaments 
of  the  sympathetic  nerve,  and  a  process  of  the  dura  mater. 
Describe   the   Pterygoid    Processes   of  the  Sphenoid.      The   wing-like 
processes  descend,  i   on  each   side  of  the  body,  and  divide  each  into  2  thin, 
bony  plates,^''«  connected  together  anteriorly,  and  presenting — 

Pterygoid  Fossa,  between  the  plates  posteriorly,  the  origin  of  the  external 

pterygoid  muscle. 
Scaphoid  Fossa,  at  the  base  of  the  internal  plate,  serves  as  the  origin  of  the 

tensor  palati  muscle. 
Hamular  Process,  a  hook-like  projection  at  the  apex  of  the  internal  plate, 

around  which  plays  the  tendon  of  the  tensor  palati  muscle. 
Vidian  Canal^^  at  the  root  of  the  process,  for  the  Vidian  nerve  and  vessels. 
Triangular  Notch,  at  the  end  of  the  process,  articulates  with  the  pterygoid 

process  of  the  palate  bone. 
With  what  bones  does  the  Sphenoid  articulate?     With  12,  the  other 
7  bones   of    the  cranium  and  5    of    the  face, — the  vomer,   2    malar,   and  2 
palate. 

How  is  the  Sphenoid  developed  ?  By  10  centres,  as  follows. — 2  for  the 
greater  wings,  2  for  the  lesser  wings  and  anterior  part  of  the  body,  2  for  the 
posterior  part  of  the  body,  2  for  the  pterygoid  processes,  and  2  for  the  sphe- 
noidal turbinated  processes.  Ossification  begins  in  the  2d  fcetal  month,  and  is 
completed  about  the  iith  year,  by  the  union  of  the  turbinated  processes  with 
the  body. 

What  muscles  are  attached  to  the  Sphenoid  bone?  There  are  12 
pairs,  as  follows,  viz. — 

Orbital  muscles,  6 — all  except  the  inferior  oblique  of  the  eye. 


THE  ETHMOID  BONE.  21 

Muscles  of  Mastication,  3 — the  temporal,  external  and  internal  pterygoids. 
Superior  constrictor,  tensor  palati,  and  laxator  tympani,  3. 

THE  ETHMOID  BONE. 

Describe  its  General  Characteristics.  It  is  a  spongy,  light  bone,  de- 
pending from  the  ethmoidal  notch  of  tlie  frontal,  and  from  between  its  orbital 
plates.  It  consists  of  a  body  and  2  lateral  masses,  and  is  named  from  the  Greek 
word  ^^//oc,  aythvios,  a  sieve. 

What  are  the  Points  on  its  Body  ?     The  body<5  consists  of  a  horizontal 
or  cribriform  plate,  and  a  perpendicular  plate,  and  presents  the — 
Crista   Galli,c  or  cock's  comb,  projecting  up- 
wards, for  the  attachment  of  the  anterior  end 
of  the  falx  cerebri. 
Cribriform  PlatCyd  on  each  side  of  the  crista 
galli.        It    is    concave    for    the    olfactory 
bulbs,z  and  perforated  for  the  transmission 
of   the   olfactory  nerves,    the   nasal    branch 
of    the    ophthalmic    nerve,    and    numerous 
small  vessels. 
Perpendicular  Plate,"'  assists  to  form  the  nasal 
septum,   is    usually   inclined    to    one    side, 
grooved     for     filaments     of    the     olfactory 
nerves,  and  has  attached  to  it  the  cartilage  of  the  nose. 
Describe   the   Lateral   Masses.       They  consist  of  a  number  of   cellular 
cavities,  and  each  one  presents  the  following  points,  viz. — 

Ethmoid  Cells,  the  anterior  opening  by  the  infundibulum  into  the  middle 

meatus  of  the  nose,  the  posterior  into  the  superior  meatus. 
Os  Planum,^  or  orbital  plate,  helps  to  form  the  inner  wall  of  the  orbit,  and  is 
notched  superiorly  to  form  with  the  frontal  bone  the  two  ethmoidal  foramina. 
Uncifor7n  Process,  descends  to  articulate  with  the  inferior  turbinated,  and 

forms  part  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  antrum. 
Superior  Turbinated  Process,/  cvlvwqs  downwards  and  outwards. 
Middle  Turbinated  Process, g  is  larger  and  more  curved  than  the  superior. 
These  processes  bound  the  superior  meatus  of  the  nose,  and  are  often 
called  the  superior  and  middle  turbinated  bones. 
Describe    its   articulations,  development,   and  muscles.       The    ethmoid 
articulates  with  13  bones,  viz. — all  those  of  the  face  except  the  malar,  and  the 
frontal  and  sphenoid  of  the  cranium.     It  is  developed  by  3  centres,  I  for  each 
lateral  mass,  and  j   for  the  body,  ossification  being  completed  about  the  6th 
year.     There  are  no  muscles  attached  to  it. 


22 


ANATOMY. 


THE  NASAL  BONES. 

Describe  them.  They  are  2  small  bones  forming  the  bridge  of  the  nose  by 
articulation  with  each  other  in  the  median  line.  They  are  convex  exter- 
nally, concave  internally,  and  grooved  for  the  external  branch  of  the  nasal 
nerve  and  for  small  arteries.  They  each  articulate  with  4  bones, — the  frontal, 
ethmoid,  superior  maxillary,  and  the  opposite  nasal ;  are  each  developed  by  one 
centre  of  ossification,  and  have  no  muscles  attached  to  them. 


THE  SUPERIOR  MAXILLARY  BONES. 

Describe  them.  They  are  2  hollow  bones,  together  forming  the  upper 
jaw.  Each  bone  consists  of  4  processes,  and  a  body  which  possesses  a  large 
cavity,  the  antrum  of  Highmore. 

Describe  the  Antrum  of  Highmore.     It  is  a  pyramidal  cavity  in  the  body  of 
the  bone,  and  opens  into  the  middle  meatus  of  the  nose  by  an  aperture  which 
is  very  small  in  the  recent  subject,  admitting  only  a  small  probe.     Its  walls  are 
veiy  thin,  and  are  covered  internally  by  a  mucous  membrane.    It  presents  the — 
Aperture,  partly  closed   by  the  articulation  of  the  unciform  process  of  the 
ethmoid  with  the  ethmoidal  process  of  the  inferior  turbinated ;  and  that 
of  the  maxillary  process  of  the  palate  with  a  fissure  in  the  superior  maxil- 
lary; also  by  the  maxillary  process  of  the  inferior  turbinated  which  hooks 
over  the  lower  edge  of  the  orifice. 
Posterior  Dental  Canals,  on  the  posterior  wall  of  the  cavity. 
Processes  in  its  floor,  formed  by  the  alveoli  of  the  ist  and  2d  molar  teeth, 

the  roots  of  which  occasionally  perforate  it. 
What  other  points    are    presented    by  the    body?      The  body  has  4 

surfaces,  the  facial  externally,  the  zygomatic 
posteriorly,  the  orbital  superiorly,  and  an 
internal  surface  forming  part  of  the  outer 
wall  of  the  nose  and  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth.     It  presents  the — 

Incisive    Possa,^   on   the   facial    surface, 
above  the  incisor  sockets,  for  the  origin 
of  the  depressor  alse  nasi  muscle. 
Canine  Possa}  more  externally,  for  the 

levator  anguli  oris. 
Infraorbital  Poramen^  above  the  ca- 
nine fossa,  transmitting  the  infraor- 
bital vessels  and  nerve,  from  the  in- 
fraorbital canal  in  the  orbital  surface 
of  the  bone. 


Fig.  6. 


THE  SUPERIOR   MAXILLARY   BONES.  23 

Maxillary  Tuberosity,  articulates  with  the  tuberosity  of  the  palate  bone. 
Turbinated  Crests,  inferior  and  superior,  on  the   inner  surface,  bounding 

horizontal  grooves  which  correspond  to  the  meati  of  the  nose. 
Vertical  Grooves,  on  the  inner  surface,  one  assisting  to  form  the  nasal  duct, 

the  other  to  form  the  posterior  palatine  canal. 
Rough  Su7-face,  for  articulation  with  the  palate  bone. 
Orbital  Surface,  articulating  with  the  lachiymal,  ethmoid,  and  palate  bones 

interiorly,  partly  bounding  the  spheno-maxillary  fissure   exteriorly,  and 

forming  the  lower  margin  of  the  orbit  anteriorly. 
Infraorbital  Groove,  along  the  orbital  surface,  ending  in  the  infraorbital 

canal  and  foramen.     (See  ante.) 
Depression,  for  the  origin  of  the  inferior  oblique  muscle  of  the  eye. 

Describe  its  Processes.     They  number  4,  as  follows. — 
Malar  Process,*  is  triangular,  looks  outwards  from  the  body,  and  is  rough 

for  articulation  with  the  malar  bone. 
Nasal  Process,^  is  thin   anteriorly  and   serrated   superiorly  for  articulation 

with  the  nasal  bone;  posteriorly  it  is  smooth  and  articulates  with  the  lachiy- 
mal.    It  presents  the — 

Turbinated  Crests,  superior  and  inferior,  the  former  articulating  with  the 
middle  turbinated  process  of  the  ethmoid  bone. 

Outer  Surface,  gives  origin  to  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum  and  levator  labii 
superioris  alaeque  nasi  muscles,  and  the  tendo  oculi. 

Groove  on  the  posterior  border,  helping  to  form  the  nasal  duct. 
Alveolar  Process,  forms  the  curved  line  of  the  teeth,  and  presents — 

Alveoli,  or  sockets,  for  8  teeth  in  the  adult,  5  in  the  child. 
Palate  Process,  forms  part  of  the  floor  of  the  nasal  cavity,  and  the  roof  of 

the  mouth.     It  articulates  with  the  vomer,  the  palate  bone,  and  with  its 

fellow  process,  and  presents  the — 

Incisive  Foramen,  or  foramen  of  Stenson,  leading  into  the  anterior  palatine 
canal,  for  the  anterior  palatine  vessels. 

Foramina  of  Scarpa,  2,  transmitting  the  naso-palatine  nerves. 

Groove  on  the  under  surface,  for  the  protection  of  the  vessels  and  nerves. 

Orifice  of  the  posterior  palatine  canal,  at  the  posterior  end. 

Nasal  Crest,  at  the  articulation  of  the  two  processes  with  the  vomer. 

Anterior  A^asal  Spine,  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  nasal  crest. 

Describe  its  articulations  and  development.  The  superior  maxillary 
articulates  with  9  bones, — the  fiontal,^^  ethmoid,^*  vomer,^^  nasal,^^  lachrymal, 
malar,  palate,  inferior  turbinated,  and  opposite  superior  maxillary. ^<>  It  is  de- 
veloped probably  by  4  centres, — i  for  the  facial  and  nasal  parts,  another  for  the 
orbital  and  malar,  a  3d  for  the  incisive,  and  a  4th  for  the  palate  portion. 


24  ANATOMY. 

V7hat  muscles  are  attached  to  it?  There  are  ii,  viz. — the  orbicularis 
palpebrarum,  and  levator  anguli  oris  alaeque  nasi,  2,  to  the  nasal  process  ; — the 
levator  labii  superioris,  levator  anguli  oris,  compressor  naris,  depressor  alae 
nasi,  orbicularis  oris,  and  inferior  oblique  of  the  eye,  6,  to  the  body  ; — the  buc- 
cinator, I,  to  the  alveolar  process  ; — the  masseter,  i,  to  the  malar  process  ; — and 
the  external  pterygoid,  i,  to  the  tuberosity. 

THE   LACHRYMAL   BONES. 

Describe  them.  They  are  2  small  quadrilateral-shaped  bones,  situated  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  orbit.     Each  presents  a — 

Groove,  on  the  external  surface,  forming  part  of  the  nasal  duct. 

Ridge,  also  externally,  for  attachment  of  the  tensor  tarsi  muscle. 

Furrow,  internally,  corresponding  to  the  ridge  on  the  external  surface. 

Hai7iular  Process,  projecting  downwards  to  articulate  with  the  lachrymal 
process  of  the  inferior  turbinated  bone. 

Internal  Surface,  closes  the  anterior  ethmoidal  cells. 

Describe  its  articulations,  development,  and  muscles.  The  lachry- 
mal articulates  with  4  bones, — the  frontal,  ethmoid,  superior  maxillary,  and 
inferior  turbinated.  It  is  developed  irova  i  centre,  and  has  but  i  muscle  attached 
to  it,  the  tensor  tarsi,  or  Horner's  muscle. 

THE   MALAR   BONES. 
Describe  them.     The  cheek  bones  are  situated  at  the  outer  and  upper  part 
of  the  face,  aiding  to  form  the  cavities  of  the  orbits  and  the  temporal  and  zyg- 
omatic fossK.     Each  presents  an — 

External  Surface,  convex,  for  attachment  of  the  zygomatic  muscles. 
Foramen,  externally,  for  the  malar  branch  of  the  temporo-malar  nerve. 
Foramen,<:  internally,  for  the  temporal  branch  of  the  same  nerve. 
Frontal  Process,'^  articulates  with  the  external  angular  process  of  the  frontal. 
Orbital  Process,^  projecting  backwards,  forming  part  of  the  floor  and  outer 
wall  of  the  orbit,  as  well  as  part  of  the  temporal  fossa,  and  bounds  the 
spheno-maxillary  fissure  anteriorly. 

Zygomatic    Process,/  projecting    backwards    to    articulate 
with  the  zygomatic  process  of  the   temporal  bone   by  a 
serrated  edge. 
Upper  Border, b  forms  the  outer  and  inferior  margin  of  the 

orbit. 
Lower  Border,  thick  and  rough,  for  the  origin  of  the  nias- 


1^     seter  muscle. 
Anterior  Border,'^  articulates  with  the  superior  maxillary  bone. 
Posterior  Border,  terminates  the  temporal  fossa  below. 


THE    PALATE   BONES.  25 

Name  its  articulations,  centres,  and  muscles.  The  malar  articulates 
with  4  bones, — the  frontal,  sphenoid,  temporal,  and  superior  maxillary.  It  is 
developed  by  one  centre  of  ossification,  and  has  5  muscles  attached  to  it, — the 
levator  labii  superioris,  zygomaticus  major  and  minor,  masseter  and  temporal. 

THE  PALATE  BONES. 
Describe  them.  They  are  2  irregularly-shaped  bones,  situated  poste- 
riorly in  the  nares.  Each  bone  assists  in  forming  the  floor  and  outer  wall  of 
the  nose,  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  the  floor  of  the  orbit,  the  inner  wall  of  the 
antrum,  the  zygomatic,  spheno-maxillary,  and  pterygoid  fossae,  and  presents  the 
following  points. — 

Horizontal  plate, '^  completes  the  nasal  floor  and  hard  palate  ;  has  a — 
Ridge,  on  the  inferior  surface,  for  the  tensor  palati  aponeurosis. 
Groove,  assisting  to  form  the  posterior  palatine  canal. 
Foramina,   transmitting   the    anterior    and    posterior  Fig.  8. 

palatine  nerves. 
Anterior  Border^  is  serrated,  and  joins  the  superior 

maxillary  bones. 
Posterior  Border,  is  free   and  concave,  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  soft  palate. 
Inner  Border, d  is  thick,  and  articulates  with  its  fel- 
low, forming  a  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  vomer. 
Its  posterior  extremity  is  the  — 
Posterior   A^asal  Spine,  for  the  origin  of  the   azygos 
uvulae  muscle. 

Vertical  plate/  a  broad  and  thick  lamella,  presents  the  following  : — 
Superior  Turbinated  Crest,  on  the  inner  surface.     Below  it  is  the — 
Inferior   Turbinated  Crest, s:  dividing  the  middle  meatus  of  the  nose  from 

the  inferior,  and  articulating  with  the  inferior  turbinated  bone. 
Posterior  Border,  articulates  with  the  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid. 
Groove,  on  the  external  surface,  helping  to  form  the  posterior  palatine  canal. 
Tivo  Smooth  Surfaces,  externally,  one  forming  the  inner  wall  of  the  zygo- 
matic fossa;  the  other,  part  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  antrum. 
Two  Rough  Surfaces,  also  externally,  one  for  articulation  with  the  superior 

maxillary  ;  the  other  with  the  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid. 
Deep   N^otch,   which   by    articulation  with   the   sphenoid   bone,   forms  the 
spheno-palatine  forame7i,h  for  the  spheno-palatine  nerves. 
Pterygoid  process,^  is  wedged  into  the  notch  between  the  plates  of  the  ptery- 
goid process  of  the  sphenoid,  with  which  it  articulates  laterally.    In  it  are  the — 
Palatine  Foramina,  for  the  external  and  posterior  palatine  nerves. 
Posterior  Surface,  aids  in  forming  the  pterygoid  fossa. 
3 


26  ANATOMY. 

Orbital  process,^   triangular  in  shape,  large  and  hollow.     It  has — 

l^hree  Articular  Surfaces,  for  the  sup.  maxillary,  sphenoid,  and  ethmoid. 

Two  Free  Surfaces,  the  orbital   forming  part  of  the  floor  of  the  orbit,  the 
external  aiding  to  form  the  zygomatic  fossa. 

Rounded  Border,  forms  a  part  of  the  spheno-maxillary  fissure. 
Sphenoidal  process,/  projects  backwards,   articulates   superiorly   with   the 

body  of  the   sphenoid,  and   externally   with   the   pterygoid  process  of  the 

sphenoid.     On  its  upper  surface  is  a — 

Groove,  which  assists  in  forming  the  pterygo-palatine  canal. 

Inner  Suiface,  forms  part  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  nasal  fossa. 

Describe  its  articulations,  development,  and  muscles.  The  palate 
articulates  with  6  bones, — the  sphenoid,  ethmoid,  vomer,  superior  maxillary, 
inferior  turbinated,  and  its  fellow  palate  bone.  It  is  developed  by  one  centre  at 
the  junction  of  the  two  plates.  There  are  5  muscles  attached  to  it, — the  azygos 
uvulce,  internal  and  external  pterygoids,  superior  constrictor,  and  tensor  palati. 

THE   INFERIOR  TURBINATED  BONES. 
Describe  them.     They  are  2  thin   curved  osseous  plates   situated   in   the 
nasal  fossae,  their  convex  surfaces  presenting  inwardly.     Each  bone  is  attached 
above  to  the  inferior  turbinated   crests  of  the  superior  maxillaiy  and  palate 
bones,  and  presents  the  following,  viz. — 

Lachrymal  Process,^  aiding  to  form  the  nasal 
duct,  by  articulation  with  the  lachrymal  and 
superior  maxillary  bones. 
Ethmoidal  Process,^  articulating  with  the  unci- 
form process  of  the  ethmoid,  thus  helping  to 
partially  close  the  aperture  of  the  antrum. 
Maxillary  Process,^  also  helps  to  partially  close  the  aperture  of  the  antrum, 

by  hooking^  over  the  lower  edge  of  that  orifice. 
Free  Border,^  below,  coming  to  about  ^2  ii^ch  above  the  floor  of  the  nose. 
Name   its  articulations,  centres,  and  muscles.     The  inferior  turbinated 
articulates  with  4  bones,  the  ethmoid,  lachrymal,  palate,   and  superior  max- 
illary.    It  is  developed  by  one  centre,  and  has  no  muscles  attached  to  it. 

THE  VOMER. 
Describe  it.     The   vomer   (plough-share)   forms   the    postero-inferior  pari 
Fig.  10.  of  the  nasal   septum,  but  is   usually  bent  to  one 

side.     Its — 
^  Superior  Border}  '^  has  a  groove  and  two  ala; 

or  wings,  for   articulation  with   the  rostrum 
— JT^    — i^  ^^^  vaginal  processes  of  the  sphenoid  bone. 


THE    INFERIOR    MAXILLARY    BONE. 


27 


Anterior  Border^  is  grooved  for  the  ethmoidal  plate  and  the  nasal  cartilage. 

Inferior  Border,^  the  longest,  articulates  with  the  nasal  crest  of  the  superior 
maxillary  and  palate  bones. 

Posterior  Border^  is  free  and  presents  towards  the  pharynx.  _^ 

Naso-palatine  Grooves,  laterally,  for  the  naso-palatine  nerves. 

Furrows,  on  the  lateral  surfaces,^  for  vessels  and  nerve-filaments. 

Name  its  articulations,  centres,  and  muscles.  The  vomer  articulates 
with  6  bones, — the  sphenoid,  ethmoid,  2  superior  maxillary,  and  2  palate 
bones.  It  is  developed  by  one  centre.  Which  appears  about  the  6th  foetal  week 
in  cartilage  between  two  laminae  which  coalesce  after  puberty.  It  has  no 
muscles  attached  to  it. 

THE   INFERIOR   MAXILLARY  BONE. 
Describe  its  general  characteristics.     The  inferior  maxillary  bone  forms 
the  lower  jaw,  receives  the  inferior  teeth,  and  is  the  second  bone  of  the  body 
in  which  ossification  appears,  the  clavicle  being  the  first.     It  consists  of  a  body 
and  two  rami. 

Describe  the  Body  of  the  bone.  It  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  horse- 
shoe, and  presents  for  examination  the  following:  viz. — 

Alveolar  Portion,  above  the  oblique  line,  containing  on  its  upper  border 

alveoli  for  16  teeth  in  the  adult,  for  lo  in  the  child. 
Symphysis,  a  vertical  ridge  on  the  median  line,  marking  the  junction  of  the 

two  symmetrical  portions  of  which  the  bone  originally  consisted. 
Mental  Process,  a  prominent  triangular  eminence,  forming  the  chin. 
Externally  on  each  side  from  the  symphysis  backwards,  are  the — 
Incisive  Fossa,  above  the  chin,  for 
the  origin  of  the  levator  menti. 
Mental  Foramen,   below  the    2d 
bicuspid    alveolus,   transmitting 
the  mental  artery  and  nerve. 
External  Oblique    Line,    for   the 
origins   of   the    depressor  labii 
inferioris  and  depressor  anguli 
oris  muscles  from   its   anterior 
half 
Groove,  near   the   angle,  for   the 
facial  artery. 

Internally,  on  each  side  from  the  median  depression  backwards,  are  the — 
Genial  Tubercles,  the  superior  for  the  genio-hyo-glossus  muscle ;  the  inferior 

for  the  genio  hyoid. 
Mylo-hyoid  Ridge,  obliquely  backwards,  for  the  mylohyoid  muscle. 


Fig. II. 


28  ANATOMY. 

Sublingual  Fossa,  near  the  genial  tubercles,  for  the  sublingual  gland. 

Fossa,  below  the  sublingual,  for  the  anterior  belly  of  the  digastric  muscle. 

Submaxillary  Fossa,  below  the  ridge,  for  the  submaxillary  gland. 

Describe  the  Rami  of  the  Inferior  Maxillary.  The  rami,  or  ascending 
portions  of  the  bone,  are  2  in  number,  and  each  present  the — 

Coronoid  Process,  anteriorly,  for  the  insertion  of  the  temporal  muscle. 

Condyloid  Process,  posteriorly.  Its  condyle  articulates  with  the  glenoid 
fossa  of  the  temporal  bone,  its  neck  receives  the  insertion  of  the  external 
pterygoid  muscle,  its  tubercle  has  attached  to  it  the  external  lateral  liga- 
ment of  the  lower  jaw. 

Sigmoid  Notch,  a  deep  depression  separating  the  above-named  processes 
from  each  other,  and  crossed  by  the  masseteric  vessels  and  nerve. 

Groove,  on  the  coronoid  process  internally,  and  prolonged  downwards  upon 
the  body,  for  the  attachment  of  the  buccinator  muscle. 

Ridges,  on  the  external  surface,  for  the  insertion  of  the  masseter. 

Spine,  a  projection  on  the  internal  surface,  for  the  attachment  of  the  internal 
lateral  ligament  of  the  jaw. 

Inferior  Dental  Canal,  opening  behind  the  spine,  lies  within  the  ramus  and 
body  of  the  bone  for  the  inferior  dental  vessels  and  nerve.  It  communi- 
cates with  each  alveolus  and  with  the  mental  foramen. 

Mylohyoid  Groove,  below  the  spine,  for  the  mylo-hyoid  vessels  and  nerve. 

Rough  Surface,  behind  the  groove,  for  the  internal  pteiygoid  muscle. 

Angle  of  the  Jaw,  at  the  junction  of  the  posterior  body  of  the  ramus  with 
the  inferior  border  of  the  body,  for  the  insertion  of  the  masseter  and  in- 
ternal pterygoid  muscles,  and  the  stylo-maxillary  ligament. 

Describe  the  Articulations  and  Development  of  the  Inferior  Max- 
illary bone.  It  articulates  with  one  pair  of  bones, — the  temporal.  It  is  the 
earliest  formed  bone  in  the  body  except  the  clavicle,  and  is  probably  developed 
by  2  centres,  one  for  each  lateral  half,  the  two  halves  coalescing  at  the 
symphysis  about  the  ist  year  of  age.  In  adult  life  the  ramus  arises  almost 
vertically  from  the  body,  and  the  dental  canal  lies  about  the  middle  of  the 
body.  In  old  age  the  ramus  extends  obliquely  backwards,  the  angle  becoming 
very  obtuse ;  and  the  alveolar  portion  being  absorbed,  the  dental  canal  is  near 
the  superior  border. 

What  Muscles  are  attached  to  the  Inferior  Maxillary?  They 
number  15  pairs, — the  masseter,  internal  and  external  pterygoids  and  temporal, 
4,  to  the  ramus ; — the  genio-hyo-glossus,  genio-hyoid,  mylo-hyoid,  digastric, 
and  superior  constrictor,  5,  to  the  internal  surface  oi  the  body ; — the  depressor 
labii  inferioris,  depressor  anguli  oris,  levator  menti,  orbicularis  oris,  platysma 
myoides,  and  buccinator,  6,  to  the  external  surface  of  the  body. 


THE   ORBITS. 


29 


Fig  12 


THE  ORBITS. 
Describe  the  Orbital  Cavities.  The  orbits  are  2  conoidal  cavities, 
situated  between  the  forehead  and  the  face,  their  bases  outwards,  their  apices 
pointing  backwards,  the  lines  of  axial  prolongation  meeting  at  the  sella 
turcica  of  the  sphenoid  bone.  They  contain  the  organs  of  vision  with  their 
appendages,  and  are  each  formed  by  7  bones, — the  frontal,^  ethmoid,^  sphe- 
noid,^ *  s  lachryma],^  superior  maxillary,^  palate,®  and  malar,^  of  which  the 
first  three  are  common  to  both  orbits.  Each  orbit  communicates  with  i  cavity 
and  4  fossae,  as  follows,  viz. — 

Cavity  of  the  cranium,  by  the  optic  foramen  ^^  and  sphenoidal  fissure. •*' 
Fossa;  (4) — the  nasal,  temporal,  zygomatic,  and  spheno  maxillary, — by  the 

nasal  duct^^  and  the  spheno-maxillary  fissure.^' 
What    Foramina    communicate   with    each    orbit  ?      Nine, — the    optic 
foramen,^^  sphenoidal  fissure,^^  anterior  ^^  and  posterior  ■^2  ethmoidal  foramina, 
supraorbital,^*  infraorbital ,^5  and  malar  foramina,'^  the   nasal  duct,'^  and  the 
spheno-maxillary  fissure.^-^ 

Describe   the   Roof  of  the  Orbit.     Formed  by  the  orbital  plate  of  the 
frontal  bone  anteriorly,^  and  the 
lesser  wing  of  the  sphenoid*  pos- 
teriorly, it  is  concave,  and  presents 
the— 

Lachrymal  Fossa,^''  at  its  outer 
angle,for  the  lachrymal  gland. 
Depression}^  at  the  inner  angle, 
for  the  pulley  of  the  superior 
oblique. 
Describe    the    Floor  of    the 
Orbit.       Formed    by  the   orbital 
surface  of  the  superior  maxillary 
bone,''  and  the  orbital  process  of 
the  malar 9  and  palate  bones,®  it 
is  nearly  flat  and  presents  the — 
Palato-maxillary  Suture  poste- 
riorly. 
Infraorbital  Canal,  and  a  De- 
pression    for     the     superior 
oblique   muscle  of  the    eye, 
anteriorly. 
Infraorbital    Groove}^    poste- 
riorly. 


30  ANATOMY. 

Describe  the  Inner  Wall  of  the  Orbit.  Formed  by  the  nasal  process 
of  the  superior  maxillaiy  bone,^^  the  lachrymal ,«  the  os  planum  of  the  ethmoicl,^ 
and  the  body  of  the  sphenoid,3  it  presents — 

A  GrooT'e,  for  the  lachrymal  sac,  and  the  Lachrymal  Crest,  anteriorly. 

2  Sutures, — the  ethmo- lachrymal,  and  the  elhmo-sphenoidal. 

Describe  the  Outer  Wall  of  the  Orbit.  Formed  by  the  orbital  pro- 
cess of  the  malar  bone,^  and  the  greater  wing  of  the  sphenoid,^  it  presents  the 
Orijices^^  of  the  malar  canals,  and  the  Spheno-nialar  Suture. 

Describe  the  Angles  of  the  Orbit.     They  present  the  following  points. 
In  the  superior  external  angle. 

Sphenoidal  Fissure}^  or  foramen  lacerum  anterius,  transmits  the  3d,  4th, 
ophthalmic  division  of  the  5th,  and  the  6th  nerves,  the  ophthalmic  vein, 
branches  of  the  lachrymal  and  middle  meningeal  arteries,  filaments  of 
the  sympathetic  nerve,  and  a  process  of  the  dura  mater. 
Articulations, — the  fronto-malar,  and  fronto-sphenoidal. 
In  the  superior  internal  angle. 

Suture, — the  lachrymo-ethmo-frontal,  in  which  are  the  following  foramina. 
Anterior  Ethmoidal  Foramen,"^^  transmitting  the  anterior  ethmoidal  artery 

and  the  nasal  nerve. 
Posterior  Ethmoidal  Foramen^  transmitting  the  posterior  ethmoidal  artery 
and  vein. 
In  the  inferior  external  angle. 

Spheno-maxillary  Fissure^^  (described  under  the  Zygomatic  P'ossa). 
In  the  inferior  internal  angle. 

A  Suture,  the  ethmo-maxillo-palato-lachrymal. 

What  other  points  are  connected  with  the  Orbit?  Two,  the  supra- 
orbital notch,  and  the  optic  foramen,  as  follows,  viz, — 

Supraorbital  A^otch  or  Foramen}^  at  the  junction  of  the  inner  and  middle 
thirds  of  the  upper  circumference,  transmitting  the  supraorbital  artery, 
veins,  and  nerve.  A  line  prolonged  from  this  notch  through  the  interval 
between  the  bicuspid  teeth  of  either  jaw,  will  cross  both  the  infraorbital 
and  mental  foramina,  and  the  canine  fossa  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone. 

Optic  Foramen}"^  at  the  apex,  is  formed  by  the  2  roots  of  the  lesser  wing 
of  the  sphenoid,  and  transmits  the  optic  nerve  and  the  ophthalmic  artery. 
From  around  its  margin  arises  a  tendinous  ring,  the  common  origin  of  the 
4  recti  muscles  of  the  eye. 

What  Muscles  arise  within  the  Orbit  ?  The  4  recti  and  2  oblique  of  the 
eye,  the  levator  palpebral,  and  the  tensor  tarsi  (8  in  all). 


THE    FOSS^. 


31 


THE   FOSSiE. 

Describe  the  Nasal  Fossae.  Together  they  form  the  cavity  of  the  nose, 
being  separated  from  each  other  by  the  Septmn  Nasi}^  They  open  in  front 
by  the  anterior  nares,  behind  by  the  posterior  nares  ;  and  extend  from  the 
palate  processes  of  the  superior  maxillary  and  palate  bones,^^  upwards  to  the 
l\ise  of  the  cranium.  They  are  formed  by  14  bones, — the  ethmoid,  sphenoid, 
frontal,  vomer,  2  nasal,  2  superior  maxillary,  2  lachrymal,  2  palate,  and  2 
inferior  turbinated. 

Describe  the  Septum  Nasi.^^  It  forms  the  inner  wall  of  each  nasal 
fossa,  and  is  formed  chiefly  by  the  perpendicular  plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone, 
the  vomer,  and  the  triangular  cartilage  of  the  septum ;  to  a  less  extent  by  5 
other  bones, — ^the  rostrum  of  the  sphenoid,  the  nasal  spine  of  the  frontal,  and 
the  crests  of  the  nasal,  palate,  and  superior  maxillary  bones. 

Describe  the  points  presented  by  each  Nasal  Fossa.     They  are — 
On  the  roof. 

Openings,  posteriorly,  into  the  sphenoidal  sinuses. 

Olfactory  Foramina,  and  the  Nasal  Slity  in  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  eth- 
moid bone. 

On  the  floor. 

Orifice,  of  the  anterior  palatine  canal. 
Suture,  between  the  bones  forming  the  hard  palate. 
Nasal  Spines,  anterior  and  posterior,  and  the  Ridge  connecting  them. 
On  the  outer  wall,  from  above  downwards. 

Superior   Turbinated  process   of  Fig.  13. 

the  ethmoid. 
Superior  Meatus  of  the  nose,  into 

which   open    3  orifices, — those 

of  the  posterior  ethmoidal  and 

the  sphenoidal  sinuses,  and  the 

spheno-palatine  foramen. 

Middle    Turbinated"^    process   of 
the  ethmoid. 

Middle  Meatus  of  the  nose,  into 

which  open    2    orifices, — those 

of  the  antrum^*  and  infundib- 

ulum, — the  latter  draining  the 

anterior  ethmoidal  cells,^  and  the  frontal  sinus. 
Inferior  Turbinated  Bone}^  below  which  is  the— 


32  ANATOMY. 

Inferior  Meatus  of  the  nose,  the  largest ;  into  it  open  2  orifices, — those  of 
the  lachrymal,  and  anterior  palatine  canals.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
anterior  and  posterior  nares. 

Describe  the  Temporal  Fossa.  Situated  on  each  side  of  the  cranium, 
it  is  shallow  above  and  behind,  but  deep  in  front  and  below ;  and  is  formed 
by  parts  of  5  bones, — the  frontal,  sphenoid,  temporal,  parietal,  and  malar.  It 
is  bounded  above  and  behind  by  the  temporal  ridge,  in  front  by  the  malar 
frontal  and  sphenoid  bones,  and  below  by  the  zygoma  and  the  pterygoid  ridge 
on  the  greater  wing  of  the  sphenoid.  It  is  traversed  by  6  sutures, — the 
spheno-malar,  spheno-frontal,  spheno-parietal,  spheno-temporal,  fronto-parietal, 
and  teniporo-parietal.  It  opens  below  into  the  zygomatic  fossa  ;  and  lodges  the 
temporal  muscle,  and  the  deep  temporal  vessels. 

Describe  the  Zygomatic  Fossa.  Extending  downwards  from  the  tem- 
poral fossa,  it  is  thus  bounded, — 

In  front,  by  the  tuberosity  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone. 

Externally,  by  the  zygoma,  and  the  ramus  of  the  inf.  maxillaiy. 

Internally,  by  the  external    plate  of  the  pterygoid  process. 

Above,  by  the  temporal  fossa,  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone, 
and  the  greater  wing  of  the  sphenoid. 

Beloiv,  by  the  alveolar  border  of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone. 

What  Fissures  open  into  the  Zygomatic  Fossa.     Two,  the — 
Spheno-maxillary  Fisstire,  between  the  greater  wing  of  the  sphenoid  externally, 

and  the  superior   maxillary  and  palate  bones  internally.      It  connects  the 

orbit  with  the  zygomatic,  temporal,  and  spheno-maxillary  fossae ;  and  trans- 
mits the   infraorbital  artery,  the  superior  maxillary    nerve    and    its  orbital 

branches,  and  the  ascending  branches  of  Meckel's  ganglion. 
Ptery go-maxillary   Fissure,  between  the  tuberosity  of  the  superior  maxillary 

bone  and  the  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid.     It  transmits  branches  of 

the  internal  maxillary  artery,  and  connects   the   zygomatic   fossa   with  the 

spheno-maxillary. 

Describe  the  Spheno-Maxillary  Fossa.  It  is  a  triangular  cavity  be- 
tween the  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid  bone  and  the  tuberosity  of  the 
superior  maxillary,  and  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  spheno-maxillary, 
pterygo-maxillary,  and  sphenoidal  fissures.     Into  it  open — 

J  Fossce, — the  orbital,  zygomatic,  and  nasal. 

2  Cavities, — the  cranial,  and  buccal. 

^  Foramina, — the  Vidian  and  pterygo-palatine  canals,  and  the  foramen 
rotundum,  posteriorly;  the  spheno-palatine  foramen  on  the  inner  wall; 
and  the  posterior  palatine  canal  inferiorlyj — occasionally  also  the  acces- 
sory palatine  canals. 


THE  SUTURES    AND    FONTANELLKS.  33 

THE   SUTURES   AND   FONTANELLES. 

Name  the  Sutures  of  the  skull.     There  are  17. 
At  the  Vertex  of  the  skull  are  5,  the — 

Sagittal,  or  interparietal. 

2  Coronal,  or  fronto-parietal.     2  Lambdoid,  or  occipito-parietal. 
At  the  Sides  of  the  skull  are  4,  the — 

2  Spheno-parietal.     2  Temporo-parietal. 
At  the  Base  of  the  skull  are  5,  the — 

2  Temporo-occipital.     Basilar,  in  the  central  line  of  the  base. 

2  Temporo-sphenoidal, 
In  the  Mesial  line,   besides  the  sagittal  and  basilar,  are  3,  the — 

vSpheno-ethmoidal,     Spheno-frontal.     Ethmo- frontal. 

Describe  the  Facial  Suttires.  The  most  important  are  the  following,  but 
the  sutures  of  the  face  are  very  numerous. 

Zygomatic  Suture,  at  the  temporo-malar  articulation. 

Transverse  Suture,  extending  from  one  external  angular  process  of  the 
frontal  bone  across  to  the  other,  and  connecting  that  bone  with  the  malar, 
sphenoid,  ethmoid,  lachrymal,  superior  maxillary,  and  nasal  bones. 

Symphysis  of  the  Chin,  the  site  of  a  foetal  suture. 

How  are  the  Sutures  formed  ?  By  dentations  of  the  external  tables  in- 
terdigitating  with  each  other,  the  adjacent  edges  of  the  internal  tables  lying  in 
unjoined  proximity.  The  sutures  are  not  formed  until  a  long  time  after  the 
formation  of  the  skull,  probably  to  permit  of  the  marginal  growth  of  the  bones. 

What  are  the  Fontanelles  ?  They  are  6  membranous  intervals  in  the  in- 
fant's skull,  corresponding  in  situation  with  the  angles  of  the  two  parietal 
bones.     They  are  as  follows,  viz. — 

Anterior,  at  the  junction  of  the  sagittal  and  coronal  intervals. 

Posteriory  at  the  junction  of  the  sagittal  and  lambdoid  intervals. 

Lateral  Fontanelles,  4,  two  at  the  anterior  inferior  angles,  and  two  at  the 
posterior  inferior  angles  of  the  parietal  bones. 

Describe  the  Wormian  Eones.  They  are  supernumerary  small  pieces 
of  bone,  irregularly  shaped,  and  developed  by  special  centres  in  unclosed  por- 
tions of  the  cranial  sutures  and  fontanelles,  being  more  frequent  in  the  lamb- 
doid suture.      They  are  also  called  "ossa  triqueta"  from  their  triangular  form. 

Describe  the  Hjroid  Bone.  It  is  shaped  like  a  horse-shoe,  has  no  articu- 
lation with  the  skeleton,  but  supports  the  tongue.  It  consists  of  a  Body^  two 
greater,  and  two  lesser  Cornua  or  horns.  On  the  body  is  a  Crucial  Ridge, 
with  a  Tubercle  at  the  centre.  It  is  developed  h-^  5  centres, — one  for  the  body 
and  one  for  each  horn.  Attached  to  it  are  lo  muscles,  3  ligaments,  and  I 
membrane,  as  follows,  viz. — 

c 


•  ANATOMY. 

To  the  Body, — the  genio-,  mylo-,  stylo-,  slcrno-,  thyro-,  omo-hyoid,  the  genio- 
hyoglossus,  and  the  hyo-glossus  muscles;  also  the  pulley  of  the  digas- 
tric, the  hyo-epiglottic  ligament,  and  the  thyro-hyoid  membrane. 

To  the  Greater  Cornu, — the  hyo-glossus,  middle  constrictor  muscles,  and 
part  of  the  thyro-hyoid ; — also  the  thyro-hyoid  ligament. 

To  the  Lesser  Cormt, — the  stylo-hyoid  ligament. 


TABLE  OF  THE  FORAMINA  AT  THE  BASE  OF  THE  SKULL, 

with  the  various  structures  transmitted  by  each. 

Anterior  Fossa  contains  i  single  foramen  and  5  in  pairs,  viz. — 

Foramen  Ccecutu, — lodges  a  fold  of  dura  mater,  and  transmits  a  vein  to  the 

longitudinal  sinus  from  the  nose,  sometimes  one  from  the  frontal  sinus. 
Ethmoidal  Fissure, — the  nasal  nerve,  and  the  anterior  ethmoidal  artery. 
Olfactory, — olfactory  nerves,  and  nasal  branches  of  the  ethmoidal  arteries. 
Anterior  Ethmoidal, —  anterior  ethmoidal  artery  and  the  nasal  nerve. 
Posterior  Ethmoidal, — posterior  ethmoidal  artery  and  vein. 
Optic  Foramen, — optic  nerve  and  ophthalmic  artery. 
Middle  Fossae  contain  8  pairs,  viz. — 

Foramen   Lacerum  Anterius,  or   Sphenoidal  Fissure, P — the   3d,  4th,   oph- 
thalmic division  of  the  5th.  and  the  6th  cranial  nerves,  and  filaments  of 
Yic^  1^.  the  sympathetic  ;  ophthalmic  vein, 

a  branch  of  the  lachrymal  artery, 
orbital  branches  of  the  middle 
meningeal  artery,  and  a  process 
of  dura  mater. 
Foramen  Rottindum, — superior  max- 
illary division  of  the  5th  cranial 
nerve. 
Foramen    Vesalii,  —  a    small    vein. 

This  foramen  is  often  absent. 
Foramen  Ovale,  t —  inferior  max- 
illary division  of  the  5th  nerve, 
lesser  petrosal  nerve,  and  the 
small  meningeal  branch  of  the 
internal  maxillary  artery. 
Foramen  Spinosum, '« — middle  men- 
ingeal artery,  meningeal  veins, 
and  sympathetic  filaments  from  the 
cavernous  plexus. 


THE   CRANIAL   FORAMINA.  36 

Foramen  Locerum  Mediuni,q — internal  carotid  artery,  carotid  plexus,  large 

petrosal  nerve,  and  a  branch  from  the  ascending  pharyngeal  artery. 
Small  Foramen, — lesser  petrosal  nerve. 
Hiatus  Fallopii, — large  petrosal  nerve,  branch  of  middle  meningeal  artery. 

Posterior  Fossa  contains  6  pairs  and  i  single,  viz. — 

Aleatus  Auditorhis  Iniernits, — facial  and  auditory  nerves,  auditory  artery. 

Aqueducttis  Vestibuli, — small  artery  and  vein,  process  of  dura  mater. 

Foramen  Lacerum  Fosierius,^ — glosso-phaiyngeal,  pneumo- gastric,  and  spinal 
accessory  nerves,  internal  jugular  vein,  meningeal  branches  of  the  ascend- 
ing phaiyngeal  and  occipital  arteries. 

Mastoid  Foramen  (often  absent), — small  vein,  occasionally  the  mastoid 
artery. 

Anterior  Condyloid  Foramen, — hypoglossal  nerve,  meningeal  branch  from 
the  ascending  pharyngeal  artery. 

Posterior  Cojidyloid  Forameni»  (often  absent),  posterior  condyloid  vein. 

Foramen  ATagnum,^^ — medulla  ol)longata  and  its  membranes,  the  vertebral 
arteries,  and  the  spinal  accessory  nerves. 

Externally,  at  the  base  of  the  skull  are  lo  pairs,  viz. — 
Opening  of  the  Eustachian  Tube, — air  to  the  middle  ear. 
Opening  of  Tensor  Ty?npani  Canal, — the  tensor  tympani  muscle. 
Orifice  of  the  Vidian  Canal, — the  Vidian  nerve,  and  vessels. 
Glasserian  Fissure,n — laxator  tympani  muscle,  tympanic   artery,  processus 

gracilis  of  the  malleus. 
Orifice  of  the  Canal  of  Tlugier, — chorda  tympani  nerve. 
Forajjieti  for  Jacobson's  Nej-ve, — tympanic  branch  of  glosso-pharyngeal. 
Foravien  for  Arnold' s  Nerve, — auricular  branch  of  pneumogastric. 
Opening  of  the  Aqueductus  Cochlea, — vein  to  the  cochlea. 
Stylo-mastoid  Foramen, t — facial  nerve,  stylo-mastoid  artery. 
Auricular  Fissure, — exit  of  Arnold's  nerve. 

Face  presents  3  pairs,  viz. — 

Supraorbital  Foramen  or  Notch, — supraorbital  artery,  vein,  and  nerve. 
Infraorbital  Foramen, — infraorbital  artery  and  nerve. 
Mental  Foramen, — mental  artery  and  nerve. 

Palate  presents,  on  each  side  at  least  6  pairs,  viz. — 

Incisive  Foramina^  (one  or  two), — nerves  and  vessels  to  the  incisor  teeth. 
2  Anterior  Palatine, — anterior  palatine  vessels,  nasopalatine  nerves. 
Posterior  Palatine, — posterior  palatine  vessels,  anterior  palatine  nerve. 
Accessoiy  Palatine  Foramina  (one  or  two), — posterior  palatine  nerves. 
Pte7-ygo-palatine  Foramen, — pterygo-palatine  vessels. 


Fig.  is. 


THE    BONES    OF    THE    TRUNK. 
THE  VERTEBRAL  COLUMN. 

What  Characteristics  are  Common  to  the  Vertebrae  ?  Each  vertebra 
consists  of  a  body  and  an  arch,  the  latter  being  formed  by  2  pedicles  and  2 
laminae,  which  support  7  processes. 

Body^  is  thick  and  spongy,  convex  in  front '^  from  side  to  side,  concave  verti- 
cally, and  on  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces,  which  are  surrounded  by  a 
bony  rim.  Anteriorly  are  small  foramina  for  nutrient  vessels,  posteriorly 
a  large  foramen  for  the  exit  of  the  ven«;  basis  vertebrarum. 
Pedicles,  project  backwards  from  the  body,  inclining  outwards.  They  are 
notched  above  and  below,  thus  forming,  with  the  adjacent  notches,  the 
Intervertebral  Foramina  for  the  entrance  of  vessels  and  the  exit  of  the 
spinal  nerves. 
Lamina:^  are  2  broad  plates,  meeting  in  the  spinous  process  behind,  and 
rough  on  their  upper  and  lower  borders  for  the  attachment  of  the  liga- 
mentum  subflava. 

Transverse    Processes,^    one 
on    each    side,   projecting 
outwards. 
Articular  Processes,  two  on 
each   side,   superior'   and 
inferior,*  project  from  the 
junction    of    the    lamince 
and   pedicles,  and   articu- 
lating   above    and    below 
with    the     articular     pro- 
cesses    of     the     adjacent 
vertebrse.      Their  superior 
facets    look    upwards     in 
the    cervical    region,   out- 
wards in  the  dorsal,  and 
inwards  in  the  lumbar. 
Spinous     Process}     projects 
backwards  from  the  junc- 
tion  of   the   laminse  with 
each      other,      sometimes 
very  obliquely. 
Spinal  Foramen^  is  the  space  enclosed  by  the  body,  pedicles,  and  laminse ; 
and  which,  when  the  vertebrse  are  articulated,  forms  part  of  the  spinal 
canal. 


r^ 


THE   VERTEBRAL   COLUMN.  37 

How  are  the  Vertebrae  distinguished?  As  cervical  (7),  dorsal  (12),  and 
lumbar  (5),  Each  of  these  divisions  has  several  peculiar  features,  but  their 
especial  characteristics  are  as  follows. 

TAe  Cervical  Vertebrcz  are  pierced  at  the  bases  of  their  transverse  processes  by 
the  vertebral  foramina,  which  transmit  the  vertebral  artery,  vein,  and  plexus. 
The  Dorsal  Vertebra  have  facets  and  demifacets  on  their  bodies,  for  articula- 
tion with  the  heads  of  the  ribs. 
The  Lumbar  VertebrcB  are  marked  by  the  absence  of  the  foramina  and  facets 

which  distinguish  the  other  two  classes. 
What  are  the   Peculiar  Vertebrae?     They  are  9  in   number, — the   atlas 
or  1st  cervical,  the  axis  or  2d  cervical,  the  vertebra  prominens  or  7th  cervical, 
the  1st,  9th,  loth,  nth,  and  12th  dorsal,  and  the  5th  lumbar. 

The  Atlas  is  a  bony  ring  supporting  the  head.  A  bony  arch  takes  the  place 
of  a  body,  and  its  spinous  process  is  a  mere  tubercle.  Its  Lateral  Masses 
form  its  chief  bulk,  supporting  large  Articular  Processes  which  all  look 
inwards,  the  superior  articulating  with  the  condyles  of  the  occipital  bone. 
The  Axis  is  marked  by  its  Odontoid  Process  projecting  upwards  from  the 
body  into  the  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  foramen  of  the  atlas,  where  it 
articulates  with  the  anterior  arch,  and  receives  the  occipito-axoid  and  the 
check  ligaments. 
The  Vertebra  Prominens  has  a  long  and  prominent  spinous  process  which 

ends  in  a  tubercle  for  the  ligamentum  nuchae. 
The  Dorsal  Vertebra.  The  ist  has  one  facet  and  a  demifacet.  The  9th  has 
a  demifacet  only.  The  loth  has  but  one  facet  on  the  body  and  one  on 
the  transverse  process.  The  nth  and  12th  have  each  but  one  facet  on 
the  body,  and  none  on  the  transverse  processes.  The  12th  resembles  a 
lumbar  vertebra  in  size  and  shape. 
The  jth  Lumbar  is  much  deeper  in  front  than  behind ;  its  spinous  process  is 
small,  but  its  transverse  processes  are  large  and  thick,  and  point  slightly 
upwards. 

What  important  Relations  have  Certain  Vertebrae? 
The  3d  CVrz'zV^/ corresponds  to — the  bifurcation  of  the  common  carotid  artery, 

and  the  superior  cervical  ganglion. 
The^th  Cervical,  to — the  junctions  of  the  larynx  with  the  trachea,  and  the  phar- 
ynx with  the  oesophagus,  and  the  middle  cervical  ganglion  of  the  sympathetic. 
The  2d  Lumbar,  to — the  junction  of  the  duodenum  with   the  jejunum,  the 
commencement  of  the   thoracic   duct   and   the   portal  vein,  the  origin  of 
the   superior   mesenteric   artery,   the   lower   margin  of    the   pancreas,  the 
opening  of  the  ductus  communis  chol^dochus,  the  lower  end  of  the  spinal 
cord,  and  the  crura  of  the  diaphragm. 
[The  false  vertebrae  are  described  as  bones  of  the  pelvis.] 
4 


38 


ANATOMY. 


THE   THORAX. 

What  is  the  Thorax  ?  An  osseo-cartilaginous  cage  formed  by  the  bodies 
of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  posteriorly,  the  ribs  and  costal  cartilages  laterally,  and 
the  sternum  in  front.  Its  shape  is  conical,  the  axis  inclined  forwards,  the  base 
below  and  closed  by  the  diaphragm. 

What  Structxires  pass  through  its  Apex?  The  trachea,  oesophagus, 
large  vessels  of  the  neck,  pneumogastric,  phrenic  and  sympathetic  nerves, 
thoracic  duct,  and  in  inspiration  the  apex  of  the  lung. 

What  Structures  are  contained  in  its  Cavity?  The  trachea,  bronchi 
and  lungs,  the  heart  and  great  vessels,  internal  mammary  arteries,  azygos  and 
bronchial  veins,  pneumogastric,  phrenic,  and  splanchnic  nerves,  oesophagus, 
thoracic  duct,  lymphatic  vessels,  and  glands. 

THE   STERNUM. 

The  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  consists  of  3  parts, — the  manu- 
bnum,^  or  handle ;  the  gladiolus,^  or  sword;  and  the  ensi- 
form  or  xiphoid  appendpc^  It  presents  the — 
Interclavicular  Notch,  on  ils  superior  border. 
Ma7iubriut7i,<^  articulates  with  the  clavicle,'^  1st  costal 

cartilage,*  and  a  part  of  the  lA.f 
Gladiolus,  articulates  with  the  costal  cartilages  from  the 
3d  to  the  6th  inclusive,  and  partly  with  the  2d  and  7th. 
Ensiform  Appendix  (the  tip),  articulates  with  the  carti- 
lage of  the  false  ribs,  and  in  part  with  the  7th  costal 
cartilage./ 
Describe  its  development  and  muscles.  The  ster- 
num is  dezieloped  by  6  centres,  I  each  for  the  manubrium 
and  ensiform  appendix,  and  4  for  the  gladiolus.  The  mus- 
cles attached  to  it  are  9  pairs  and  one  single  muscle, — 
the  sternorcleido-mastoid,  sterno-hyoid,  and  sterno-thyroid, 
3,  to  its  upper  part ; — the  rectus  abdominis,  external  and  internal  oblique,  trans- 
versalis,  and  the  diaphragm,  5,  to  its  lower  part; — the  pectoralis  major,  i,  an- 
teriorly ; — and  the  triangularis  sterni,  i,  posteriorly. 


THE  RIBS. 
Describe  them.  There  are  12  ribs  on  each  side,  of  which  7  are  "true 
ribs,"  being  each  connected  to  the  sternum  by  a  separate  cartilage , — and  5  are 
"  false  ribs."  Three  of  the  latter  are  connected  by  their  cartilages  to  the  carti- 
lage of  the  7th  rib,  while  two  are  called  "  floating  ribs,"  having  each  one  ex- 
tremity free, 

•^^      What  are  the  Characteristics  Common  to  most  of  the  Ribs  ?    They  each 
\    consist  of  a  head,  neck,  and  shaft,  and  present  the  following  points,  viz. — 


Fig 


Head,a.  is  divided  by  a  ridge  into  2  facets,  which  articulate  with  the  facets  on 
the  bodies  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  ;  the  ridge  giving  attachment  to  the  in- 
terarticular  ligament. 
Neck,  about  an  inch  long,  having  attached  to  its  upper  border  the  anterior 
costo-transverse  ligament,  to  its  posterior  surface  the  middle  costo-trans- 
verse  ligament ;   its  anterior  surface  is  smooth. 
Tuber  osity,^ 
at  the  junc- 
tion   of   the 
neck    with 
the  shaft, 
has    a    facet 
for    articula- 
t  io  n    with 
^  the  trans- 
verse pro- 
cess   of    the 
next     lower 

vertebra,  and  a  rough  surface  for  the  posterior  costo-transverse  ligament. 
Shaft,  twisted  on  itself,  is  concave  internally,  convex  externally,  its  upper 
border  round  and  smooth,  its  lower  border  grooved«^  for  the  intercostal 
vessels  and  nerves.  At  its  external  extremity^^  is  an  oval  depression  for 
the  insertion  of  the  costal  cartilage. 
Angle,e  just  in  front  of  the  tuberosity,  is  marked  by  a  rough  line,  to  which 

are  attached  the  muscles  of  the  deep  layer  of  the  back. 
How  are  they  developed?     Each   rib  has    3  centres,  one   each  for  the 
head,  shaft,  and  tuberosity.     The  last  2  ribs,  having  no  tuberosity,  are  devel- 
oped each  by  2  centres. 

Describe  the  Peculiar  Ribs.     They  are   the  ist,  2d,  loth,  nth,  and  12th. 
They  respectively  present  the  following  peculiarities,  viz. — 
fst    Rib,    is    broad,    short,    not 
twisted,  has  no  angle,  only  one 
facet  on  the  head ;«  but  on  its 
upper   surface    are    seen    two 
grooves  for  the  subclavian  ar- 
tery^ and    vein,^  and  between 
them  a  tubercleg  for  the  scale- 
nus anticus  muscle. 
2(1  Rib,  is   not  twisted,  its  tuber- 
osity and  angle  are  veiy  close 
together,  and  its  upper  surface  presents  rough  surfaces  for  the  serratus 
magnus  and  scalenus  posticus  muscles. 


Fig.  18 


40 


ANATOxMY. 


f 


< 


1 0th  Rib,  has  but  one  facet  on  its  head. 

/////  Rib,  has  no  neck,  no  tuberosity,  and  but  one  facet  on  its  head. 

J2th  Rib,  has  neither  neck,  angle,  tuberosity  nor  groove,  and  but  one  facet. 

THE  PELVIS. 
Describe  the  Pelvis.  It  is  formed  by  the  sacrum,  coccyx,  and  two  ossa 
innominata,  and  is  divided  into, — i\ic  false  pelvis,  comprising  the  upper  and 
expanded  portion, — and  the  tnie  pelvis,  below  the  ilio-pectineal  line.  The 
false  pelvis  corresponds  to  the  iliac  fossae,  and  is  marked  by  its  walls  being 
deficient  anteriorly  between  the  iliac  borders,  and  posteriorly  between  the 
sacrum  and  the  posterior  iliac  spines.     The  true  pelvis  has  a — 

Brim,  or  inlet,  bounded  in  front  by  the  crest  and  spine  of  the  pubes,  behind 
by  the  promontory  of  the  sacrum,  laterally  by  the  ilio-pectineal  line.  Its 
axis  corresponds  to  a  line  from  the  umbilicus  to  the  middle  of  the  coccyx. 
Its  average  diameters  in  the  female  are, — 4  inches  antero-posteriorly,*  over 
5  inches  transversely,'  under  5  inches  obliquely.^     In  the  male  each  of 

these   measurements  is    about 
^'*'-  ^9-  yi  an  inch  less. 

Cavity,     is     a     short      curved 
canal,    connecting    the    brim 
with  the  outlet.     In  front  its 
depth     is    about     i|^    inch, 
posteriorly   4  to   4^    inches 
in    the   female,    4^    to    5^ 
inches     in     the    male.       Its 
diameter  is  about  4|^  inches 
in  the  female,  4^  inches  in 
the  male,  all  around. 
Outlet,  is  bounded  by  the  pubic  arch  above,  the  tip  of  the  coccyx  behind, 
and  the  tuberosities  of  the  ischii  laterally.     Its  axis,  if  prolonged,  would 
touch  the  promontory  of  the  sacrum.     Its  diameters  in  the   female  are 
each  about  4^  inches,  in  the  male  about  3^  inches. 
State  the  chief  differences  between  the  male  and  female  pelves.     The  male 
pelvis  is  marked  by  strength  of  the  bones,  prominence  of  the  muscular  impres- 
sions, a  deep  and  narrow  cavity,  and  large  obturator  foramina.    Tht  female  pel- 
vishzis  lighter  bones,  broader  iliac  fossse,  the  spines  being  further  apart,  greater 
diameters  at  every  point,  the  sacrum  less  curved,  and  the  pubic  arch  wider. 

Describe  the  Sacrum.  The  "sacred  bone"  is  triangular,  curved,  with  its 
convexity  backwards,  and  is  situated  base  upwards  between  the  ossa  innominata, 
forming  with  the  coccyx  the  posterior  wall  of  the  pelvis.  The  bone  is  formed 
by  the  coalescence  of  5  vertebrae,  and  presents  the  following  points,  viz — 


THE   PELVIS. 


41 


Fig.  20. 


4  Ridges,^  transversely  across  both  surfaces,  mark  the  union  of  its  original 

segments. 
8  Anterior  Sacral  Foramina,  for  the  anterior  sacral  nerves. 
8  Grooves,^  shallow  and  broad,  for  the  aforesaid  nerves. 
Promontory,  at  its  junction  with  the  last  lumbar  vertebrge. 
8  Posterior  Sacral  Foramina,  for  the  posterior  sacral 

nerves. 
Tubercles,  representing  the  spinous  processes  of  the 

segments. 
Groove,  posteriorly,  on   each   side   of  the   spinous 

tubercles. 
2  Comua,  at  the  posterior  inferior  portion  of  the 

bone. 
Auricular  Surface^  on  each  side,  articulates  with 

the  ilium. 

Notch,  laterally  and  inferiorly,  for  the  5th  sacral  nerve. 
Base^  has  all  the  characteristics  of  the  lumbar  vertebras,  with  the  last  of 

which  it  articulates. 
Apex}^  has  an  oval  surface  for  articulation  with  the  coccyx. 
Sacral  Canal,  the  continuation  of  the  spinal,  is  incomplete  posteriorly  at  its 

lower  end.     It  transmits  the  Cauda  Equina  ;  into  it  open  the  sacral  fora- 
mina laterally. 

/         Describe  the  Cocc5rx.     It  consists  of  4  or  5  rudimentaiy  vertebrae  coalesced 
y^: into  a  triangular  bone,  the  base^  of  which  articulates  with  the  apex  of  the 
-  ffk  sacrum.     Its  posterior  surface  is  rough  for  muscles  and  liga- 
ments, its  anterior  surface  is  smooth  and  marked  by  ridges  at 
the  junction  of  its  constituent  vertebrae.     It  presents  the  fol- 
lowing points. — 

2  Cornua^  superiorly,  articulating  with  the  sacral  comua 

to  form  foramina  for  the  5th  sacral  nerves. 
Apex,  is  sometimes  bifid  and  turned  to  one  side. 


Describe  the  Ossa  Innominata.  The  unnamed  bones  are  placed  one  on 
each  side  of  the  osseous  pelvis,  and  are  each  formed  by  the  union,  about 
puberty,  of  3  bones,— the  ilium,  ischium,  and  pubes.  The  innominate  bone 
as  a  whole  presents  the  following  points,  viz. — 

Acetabulum,  or  cotyloid  cavity,  receives  the  head  of  the  femur.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  junction  of  the  3  bones,  the  ilium  and  ischium  each  forming 
about  two-fifths,  and  the  pubes  one-fifth  of  it.  A  depression  in  its  centre 
lodges  a  mass  of  fat  containing  vessels  for  the  nourishment  of  the  synovial 


42 


ANATOMY. 


Fig.  22. 


membrane.  The  Cotyloid  Notch  is  a  deficiency  in  its  lower  anterior 
margin,  transmitiing  nutrient  vessels  to  the  joint ;  to  the  edges  of  the  notch 
are  attached  the  ligamentum  teres,  and  it  is  bridged  over  by  the  transverse 
ligament,  a  continuation  of  the  cotyloid  ligament  which  surmounts  the 
brim  of  the  acetabulum. 
Obturator^  or  Thyroid  Foramen^  on  the  anterior  surface  between  the  pubes 
and  ischium,  large  and  oval  in  the  male,  small  and  triangular  in  the 
female ;  is  closed  by  the  obturator  membrane,  except  above  where  the 
obturator  nerves  and  vessels  pass  through  it. 

Describe  the  Ilium.     It  is  the  superior  part  of  the  innominate  bone,  and 
presents  the  following  points,  viz. — 

Crest^  along  its  upper  borcer,  having  an  outer  and  inner  lip  for  muscular 
attachment,  and  ending  in  the  superior  spines. 

Anterior  Superior  Spine, ^   to  which  is  attached 
the  sartorius  and  tensor  vaginoe  femoris  mus- 
cles, and  Poupart's  ligament. 
Anterior  Inferior  Spine ^  for  the  straight  tendon 

of  the  rectus  femoris. 
Notchy  between  the  above-named    spines,  trans- 
mitting   the    external    cutaneous    nerve,   and 
lodging  some  fibres  of  the  sartorius. 
Posterior  Superior  Spine }^  for  the  attachment  of 
the  erector  spinas  muscle,  and  the  oblique  part 
of  the  sacro-sciatic  ligament. 
Posterior   Inferior   Spine^"^   for  the  great  sacro- 
sciatic  ligament. 
Great  Sacro-sciatic  Notch}^  below  the  last-named 
spine,  transmits  the  great  sciatic,  superior  gluteal,  and  pudic  nerves,  the 
pyriformis  muscle,  and  the  sciatic,  pudic,  and  gluteal  vessels,  and  a  nerve 
supplying  the  obturator  externus  muscle. 
Curved  Lines,^^  superior  middle  and  inferior,  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 

bone,  from  the  spaces  between  which  arise  the  glutei  muscles. 
Groove,  above  the  acetabulum,  for  the  reflected  tendon  of  the  rectus  femoris 

muscle. 
Linea  Ilio-pectinea,  in  part ;  on  the  inner  surface,  above  which  is  a  smooth 

surface,  the   Venter  of  the  Ilium. 
Auricular  Surface}^  rough,  articulates  with  the  sacrum. 

Describe  the  Ischium.     It  is  the  lowermost  portion  of  the  innominate  bone, 
and  presents  the  following  points,  viz. — 

Body^  forms  two-fifths  of  the  acetabulum,  and  the  external  margin  of  the 


BONES    OF    THE   SHOULDER.  43 

obturator  foramen ;  on  it  is  a  broad  groove  for  the  tendon  of  the  obturator 
externus  muscle.  Its  posterior  margin  assists  in  forming  the  great  sacro- 
sciatic  notch. 

Spine}^  for  the  gemellus  superior,  coccygeus,  and  levator  ani  muscles,  and 
the  lesser  sacro-sciatic  ligament. 

Lesser  Sacro-sciatic  Notch^^  below  the  spine,  transmits  the  obturator  muscle, 
its  nerve,  and  the  pudic  vessels  and  nerve  as  they  re-enter  the  pelvis,  hav- 
ing crossed  the  spine  of  the  ischium.  The  sacro-sciatic  notches  are  con- 
verted into  foramina  by  the  sacro-sciatic  ligaments ;  the  greater  notch  by 
the  lesser  ligament,  the  lesser  notch  by  the  greater  ligament. 

Tuberosity ^'^  the  lowest  and  most  prominent  part,  gives  attachment  to  the 
greater  sacro-sciatic  ligament,  and  to  several  muscles.  On  it  one  rests 
when  sitting. 

Ascending  Ramus,  bounds  the  obturator  foramen  inferiorly,  articulates  with 
the  descending  ramus  of  the  pubes,  and  gives  attachment  to  the  obturator 
membrane  and  several  muscles. 

Describe  the  Pubes.  The  pubic  or  pectineal  bone  forms  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  innominate.     It  presents  the  following,  viz. — 

Body,  lies  between  the  rami,  with  its  fellow  forms  the  Symphysis,  giving 

origin  to  several  muscles  and  ligaments. 
Crest^  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  terminates  externally  in  the  Spine,  and 

internally  in  the  Angle. 
Spine,  affords  attachment  to  one  end  of  Poupart's  ligament. 
Linea  Ilio-pectinea,  in  part;  gives  attachment  to  the  conjoined  tendon,  Gim- 

bernat's  ligament,  and  the  triangular  ligament. 
Horizontal  Ramus,  forms  part  of  the  brim  of  the  pelvis,  of  the  margin  of  the 

obturator  foramen,  and  of  the  acetabulum.    On  its  under  surface  is  a  groove 

for  the  obturator  vessels  and  nerve. 
Pectineal  Emitience^  gives  attachment  to  the  psoas  parvus  muscle. 
Descending  Ramus^^  flat  and  thin,  joins  the  ascending  ramus  of  the  ischium, 

and  bounds  the  obturator  foramen  internally. 

What  Muscles  are  attached  to  the  Os  Innominatum  ?  36,  comprising 
those  of  the  abdomen,  thigh,  perineum,  floor  of  the  pelvis,  and  rotators  of  the 
hip-joint. 

BONES  OF  THE   UPPER   EXTREMITY. 

THE    SHOULDER. 

What  Bones  form  the  Shoulder?  The  clavicle  and  scapula  connecting  the 
arm  with  the  trunk,  and  in  this  respect  homologous  to  the  innominate  bone  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  body. 


44  ANATOMY. 

Describe  the  Clavicle.  The  collar-  or  key-bone,  is  a  short  bone  by  struct- 
ure, having  no  medullary  canal;  and  is  curved  like  the  letter  f,  its  inner 
two-thirds  being  cylindrical,  and  convex  anteriorly ;  its  outer  third  flattened, 
and  concave  anteriorly.  It  is  placed  horizontally  between  the  sternum  and 
the  scapula,  and  is  the  most  elastic  bone  in  the  body.  It  presents,  from  within 
outwards,  the  following  points,  viz, — 

Facets,  for  articulation  with  the  sternum  and  the  cartilage  of  the  1st  rib,  at 
its  sternal  end. 

Impression  for  the  rhomboid,  or  costo-clavicular  ligament. 

Groove,  on  the  lower  surface,  for  the  subclavius  muscle. 

Tubercle,  for  the  conoid  part  of  the  costo-clavicular  ligament. 

Oblique  Line,  for  the  trapezoid  part  of  the  same  ligament. 

Facet,  on  the  acromial  end,  for  articulation  with  the  scapula. 

Nutrient  Foramen,  in  the  subclavian  groove. 

Describe  the  Scapula.  The  shoulder-blade  is  a  large,  flat,  and  triangular 
bone,  situated  on  the  posterior  and  lateral  portion  of  the  thorax,  from  the  2d 
rib  to  the  7th,  inclusive. 

The  Venter,  or  anterior  surface,  presents  from  within  outwards, — 
Ridges,  giving  attachment  to  the  subscapularis  muscle. 
Marginal  Surface,  along  the  inner  border,  for  the  attachment  of  the  serratus 

magnus  muscle. 
Subscapular  Fossa,  and  Angle,  for  the  subscapularis  muscle. 
The  Dorsum,  or  posterior  surface,  presents  the  following,  viz. — 

Spine,  a  bony  ridge,  which  affords  attachment  to  the  trapezius  and  deltoid 

muscles,  and  ends  in  the  acromion  process. 
Supraspinous  Fossa,  above  the  spine,  for  the  supraspinatus  muscle. 
Infraspinous  Fossa,  below  the  spine,  larger  than  the  supraspinous,  convex  at 

its  centre,  lodges  the  infraspinatus  muscle,  and  the  nutrient  foramen. 
Marginal  Surface,  along  the  external  border,  to  which  are  attached  the  teres 
minor  muscle  above,  the  teres  major  below,  and  sometimes  a  few  fibres  of 
the  latissimus  dorsi  at  the  lower  angle. 
Giwove  crossing  the  margin,  for  the  dorsalis  scapulae  vessels. 
Smooth  Surface,  behind  the  root  of   the   spine,  over  which  the  trapezius 
muscle  glides. 
The  Acromion  process,  or  "  summit  of  the  shoulder,"  extends  from  the  spine, 
and  projects  over  the  glenoid  cavity,  articulating  with  the  clavicle  by  an  oval 
facet.     It  affords  attachment  to  the  deltoid  and  trapezius  muscles,  and  by  its 
apex  to  the  coraco-acromial  ligament. 
The  Coracoid  process,  or  "  crow's  beak,"  projects  from  the  upper  border 
and  neck  of  the  bone  over  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  glenoid  cavity. 


BONES   OF  THE   ARM.  45 

Into  it  is  inserted   l   muscle,  the  pectoralis  minor;   the  coraco-brachialis, 
and  the  short  head  of  the  biceps  arise  from  it  by  a  common  tendon  ;  and  3 
ligaments  are  attached  to  it, — the  conoid,  trapezoid,  and  coraco-acromial. 
The  Superior  Border  presents  the — 

Suprascapular  Notch,  converted  into  a  foramen  for  the  suprascapular  nerve 

by  the  transverse  ligament,  over  which  passes  the  suprascapular  artery. 

The  omo-hyoid  muscle   is   attached    to  the  border  just  internal   to  the 

notch. 
The  Axillary  Border  is  the  thickest,  and  presents  a — 

Rough  Surface,  for  the  long  head  of  the  triceps  muscle,  just  below   the 

glenoid  cavity. 
Groove,  the  origin  of  a  part  of  the  subscapularis  muscle. 
The  Vertebral  Border  is  the  longest,  and  presents  an — 
Anterior  Lip,  for  the  attachment  of  the  serratus  magnus. 
Posterior  Lip,  for  the  supra-  and  infra-spinatus  muscles. 
Interspace,  between  the  lips,  for  the  levator  anguli  scapulae,  the  rhomboideus 

minor,  and  the  fibrous  arch  of  the  rhomboideus  major  muscles. 
Other  points  of  interest  on  the  bone  are  the — 

Superior  Angle,  affords  attachment  to  part  of  the  serratus  magnus,  levator 

anguli  scapulae,  and  supra-spinatus  muscles. 
Inferior  Angle,   affords    attachment   to   part   of  the  serratus   magnus   and 

teres  major  muscles,  and  occasionally  to  a  few   fibres  of  the  latissimus 

dorsi. 
Glenoid   Cavity,  at  the  external  angle   or  head  of   the   bone,    a   shallow 

cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  humerus.     It  is  deepened  by 

the  glenoid  ligament   which  is  attached  around   its  margin ;  and  at  its 

upper  part  gives   origin   to   the  long   head  of  the   biceps   flexor   cubiti 

muscle. 
Neck,  is  the  contracted  part  of  the  bone  behind  the  glenoid  cavity ;  from 

it  arises  the  anteiior  root  of  the  coracoid  process. 

THE  ARM. 
Describe  the  Humerus.     It   is  the  only  bone  in  the  arm,  and  articulates 
with  the  scapula  above,  and  with  the  ulna  and  radius  below.     It  presents  the 
following  points,  viz. — 

Head,b  is   nearly   hemispherical,  and   smooth   for   articulation  with  a  gle- 
noid cavity  of  the  scapula. 
Anatomical  A^eck,c  is  a  constriction  in  the  bone,  just  below  the  head,  for  the 

attachment  of  the  capsular  ligament. 
Greater   Tuberosity ,d.  has  3  small   facets    for   the   insertions   of  the  supra- 
spinatus,  infraspinatus,  and  teres  minor  muscles. 


46 


ANATOMY. 


Fig.  23. 


Lesser  Tuberosity  e  on  the  inner  side  of  the  bone,  gives  insertion  to   the 

subscapularis  muscle. 
Bicipital  Groove,/  lies  vertically  between  the  tuberosities  for  the  upper  third 
of  the  bone,  and  lodges  the  tendon  of  the  long  head  of  the  biceps  flexor 
cubiti.  Into  its  inner  or  posterior  lip  ^  are  inserted  the  teres  major  and 
latissimus  dorsi  muscles,  while  its  outer  or  anterior  lip^  receives  the  in- 
sertion of  the  tendon  of  the  pectoralis  major,  which  covers  the  groove. 

Surgical  Neck,  is  situated  immediately  below  the  tuberosi- 
ties, and  is  a  slight  constriction  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
shaft. 
Shaft,^  is  cylindrical  above,  prismatic  and  flattened  below. 

Rough  Surface,i  for  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid    muscle, 
about  the  middle  of  the  external  surface  of  the  shaft. 

Musculo- spij'al  Groove,  lodging  the  musculo-spiral  nerve, 
and  the  superior  profunda  artery,  is  situated  on  the  pos- 
terior surface  of  the  shaft,  separating  the  origins  of  the 
outer  and  inner  heads  of  the  triceps  muscle. 
7|^  Orifice j  of  the   nutrient   canal,  about  the  middle   of  the 

i-y  shaft. 

Condyloid   Ridgesop  internal    and    external,   arising   from 
i|  the  respective  condyles,  extending  upwards  along   the 

jilt  shaft. 

External  Condyle,^n  gives  attachment  to  the  external 
lateral  ligament  and  the  extensor  and  supinator  group 
of  muscles. 
Internal  Condyle,^  lower  and  more  prominent  than  the 
other,  gives  attachment  to  the  internal  lateral  ligament 
and  the  flexor  and  pronator  group  of  muscles  of  the 
fore-arm. 
Radial  Head,k  forms  the  external  part  of  the  inferior  articular  surface ;  for 

articulation  with  the  radius. 
Trochlear  Surface,l  articulates  with  the  greater  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna; 
is  a  deep  depression  between  two  borders,  and  extends  from  the  anterior 
,    to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  bone. 
Coronoid  Fossa,q  in  front  of  the  trochlea,  receives  the  coronoid  process  of 

the  ulna  when  the  fore-arm  is  flexed. 
Olecranon  Fossa,  behind  the  trochlea,  receives  the  tip  of  the  olecranon  pro- 
cess,  when  the  fore-arm  is  extended. 


BONES   OF   THE   FORE-ARM. 


47 


THE   FORE-ARM. 

Describe  the  Ulna.  The  elbow-bone  is  the  internal  bone  of  the  fore-arm. 
It  is  larger  and  longer  than  the  radius,  forming  the  greater  portion  of  the 
articulation  with  the  humerus.  It  does  not  enter  into  the  formation  of  the 
wrist-joint,  being  excluded  therefrom  by  an  interarticular  fibro-cartilage.  It 
presents  the  following,  viz. — 

Olecranon  Process,^  at  the  upper  extremity,  forming  the  elbow.  It  is  curved 
forwards,  its  apex  being  received  into  the  olecranon  fossa  of  the  humerus 
when  the  fore  arm  is  extended.  Its  posterior  surface  gives  insertion  to  the 
tendon  of  the  triceps.    In  its  function  and  structure  it  resembles  the  patella. 

Coronoid  Process,^  below  the  olecranon,  projects  forwards,  its  apex  being 
received  into  the  coronoid  fossa  of  the  humerus  when  the  fore-arm  is 
flexed.  Its  upper  surface  is  concave  for  articulation  with  the  humerus, 
its  lower  surface  rough  for  the  insertion  of  the  brachialis  anticus  muscle. 
Its  inner  surface  has  a  margin  for  the  internal  lateral  ligament,  a  tubercle 
for  the  flexor  sublimis  digitorum,  and  a  ridge  for  the  pronator  radii  teres. 

Greater  Sigmoid  Cavity, i  lies  between  the  processes,  and  is  divided  by  a 
vertical  ridge  into  two  unequal  parts.  It  articulates  with  the  trochlear 
surface  of  the  humerus. 


Fig.  24. 


Lesser  Sigmoid  Cavity  c  lies  external  to  the  coronoid 
process ;  is  oval  and  concave,  articulating  with  the 
head  of  the  radius,  and  giving  attachment  to  the 
orbicular  ligament. 

Shaft,a  large  and  prismatic  above,  smaller  and  rounded 
below,  has  the  A'utrient  Foramen/ on  its  anterior  sur- 
face, and  a  prominent  margins  externally,  to  which 
is  attached  the  interosseous  membrane.  The  shaft 
gives  attachment  to  9  of  the  12  muscles  of  the  fore- 
anii. 

Headh  at  the  carpal  end,  articulates  with  the  lesser 
sigmoid  cavity  of  the  radius,  and  the  fibro-cartilage 
of  the  wrist-joint. 

Styloid  ProcesSyi  projecting  from  the  head  internally 
and  posteriorly,  its  apex  gives  attachment  to  the  in- 
ternal lateral  ligament,  and  a  depression  at  its  root 
to  the  fibro-cartilage  of  the  joint. 

Groove,  for  the  tendon  of  the  extensor  carpi  ulnaris 
muscle. 


{ 


V 


48  ANATOMY. 

Describe  the  Radius.  The  radius  lies  externally  to  the  ulna  when  the 
fore  arm  is  in  supination  ;  it  is  prismatic  in  form  with  the  base  below  where  it 
articulates  with  the  carpus.  The  bone  is  curved  outwards  and  is  shorter  than 
the  ulna,  by  the  length  of  the  olecranon.  It  presents  the  following  points  from 
above  downwards,  viz. — 

Headk  cylindrical  and  cup-shaped,  articulating  with  the  radial  head  of  the 
humerus,  and  the  -lesser  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna,  and  playing  within 
the  orbicular  ligament. 

Neckfl  the  constricted  part  below  the  head. 

Tuberosity, *n  rough  behind  for  the  insertion  of  the  biceps,  and  smooth  in 
front  where  it  is  covered  by  a  bursa. 

Shaft,j  prismoid  in  form,  presents  a  sharp  border  internally  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  interosseous  membrane,  the  Nutrient  Forainen  is  on  its  an- 
terior surface.     It  gives  attachment  to  8  of  the  12  muscles  of  the  fore-arm. 

Sigmoid  Cavity,  at  the  internal  side  of  the  carpal  end,  is  shallow,  and  artic- 
ulates with  the  head  of  the  ulna. 

Articular  Surf  ace, o  is  divided  by  a  ridge  into  2  facets  for  articulation  with 
the  semilunar  and  scaphoid  bones  of  the  carpus. 

Styloid  Process, P  externally,  gives  attachment  by  its  apex  to  the  external 
lateral  ligament,  and  by  its  base  to  the  supinator  longus  muscle. 

Grooves,  on  the  posterior  and  external  surfaces  of  the  lower  extremity,  for 
the  tendons  of  the  8  extensor  muscles  of  the  thumb,  and  those  of  the 
radial  side  of  the  wrist,  and  fingers. 

THE   HAND. 
How  are  the  Bones  of  the  Hand  divided?     Into  the  carpus  (8),  the  meta- 
FiG.  25.  carpus  (5),  and  the  phalanges  (14).     Total, 

27  bones. 

Name  the  Bones  of  the  Carpus.  They 
are  placed  in  2  rows,  one  row  in  front  of  the 
other,  with  4  bones  in  each  row,  as  follows, 
— the  left  hand  being  in  supination,  naming 
from  without  inwards,  viz. — 

ist,  or  Proximal  Raiv, — Scaphoid,^  Semi- 
lunar,^ Cuneiform, C  Pisiform.-f 
'^^^^^^^'''■^^S^I^B^^  ^^>  o'f'  Distal  Row, — Trapezium,  T'  Trape- 

zoid,^ Os-magnum,-^  Unciform.^ 
State  the  number  of  Articulations  in  the 
Carpus.     34,  as  follows, — the  number  after 
each   bone  representing  the  number  of   its 
articulations,  viz. — 


BONES    OF   THE   HAND.  49 

Scaphoid,  5.         Semilunar,  5.       Cuneiform,  3.         Pisiform,  i. 
Trapezium,  4.      Trapezoid,  4.       Os-magnum,  7.       Unciform,  5. 

"What  peculiarities  have  the  Carpal  bones  ?  The  first  three  enter  into  the 
formation  of  the  wrist-joint;  the  pisiform  does  not,  but  is  wholly  without  it, 
and  may  be  considered  a  mere  appendage  of  the  carpus.  When  the  hand  is 
in  pronation — 

The  Scaphoid,  or  boat-shaped  bone,  has  a  tuberosity  on  its  outer  side,  its 

largest  auricular  facet  is  uppermost,  and  a  transverse  groove  crosses  its 

posterior  surface. 
The  Semilunar  Bone  has  a  crescentic  facet  externally,  and  a  convex  facet 

superiorly. 
The  Cuneiform  Bone  is  wedge-shaped,  its  convex  surface  above,  and  has  an 

isolated  facet  for  the  pisiform  articulation. 
The  Pisiform  Bone  is  the  smallest,  and  has  but  one  facet,  which  lies  poste- 
riorly when  the  bone  is  in  position. 
The  Trapezium  has  a  deep  groove  for  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  carpi  radialis, 

and  a  saddle-shaped  facet,  inferiorly. 
The  Trapezoid  is  small  and  quadrilateral,  bent  on  itself,  with  a  saddle-shaped 

facet  looking  downwards. 
The  Os-magnum  has  a  head  looking  upwards,  a  neck,  and  a  body ;  is  the 

largest  bone  of  the  carpus,  and  has  a  tubercle  on  the  inner  side  of  the  base. 
The  Unciform  Bone  is  triangular,  with  a  concavity  which  lies  to  the  outer 

side ;  and  the  unciform  process,  long  and  curved,  projecting  from  its  palmar 

surface. 

Describe  the  Metacarpus.  The  5  metacarpal  bones  are  placed  between  the 
carpus  and  the  phalanges,  are  long  bones,  and  each  has  a  head,  shaft,  and 
base.     Their  heads  articulate  with  the  respective  phalanges. 

isi  Metacarpal  Bone,d  articulates  with  the  trapezium,  is  shorter  than  the 
others  by  one-third,  and  its  base  has  but  i  articular  facet.  This  bone  is 
classed  among  the  phalanges  by  Professor  W.  H.  Pancoast. 

2d  Metacarpal  Bone,e  articulates  with  3  bones  of  the  carpus, — the  trape- 
zium, trapezoid,  and  os-magnum  ;  its  base  is  large,  and  has  4  articular  facets. 

jd  Metacarpal  Bone,-f  articulates  with  i  bone  of  the  carpus, — the  os-mag- 
num ;  its  base  has  a  projecting  process  on  the  radial  side,  and  2  small 
facets  on  the  opposite  side. 

4th  Metacarpal  Bone^  articulates  with  2  bones  of  the  carpus  and  with  the 
adjacent  metacarpal  bones;  its  base  is  small,  and  has  2  circular  facets,  i 
on  each  side. 

^th  Metacarpal  Bone,^  articulates  with  I  carpal   bone, — the  unciform;  its 
base  has  i  lateral  articular  facet. 
5  D 


50 


Describe  the  Phalanges.  The  finger-bones  are  14  in  numljer  (15  accord- 
ing to  Pancoast),  3  to  each  finger,  and  2  to  the  thumb.  They  are  long  bones, 
and  each  has  a  base,  a  shaft,  and  a  digital  extremity.  The  Bases  of  the  first 
row  articulate  with  the  heads  of  the  metacarpal  bones.  The  Digital  Extremities 
of  the  first  and  second  rows  have  each  2  small  lateral  condyles,  while  in  the 
terminal  row  they  are  rough,  for  the  attachment  of  the  sensitive  pulp  of  the 
fingers. 

BONES   OF   THE   LOWER    EXTREMITY. 
THE   THIGH. 
Describe  the  Femur.      The  thigh-bone  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  is  the 
longest,  largest,  and  strongest  bone  in  the  body.    In  the  ver- 
tical position  of  the  skeleton  it  forms  one  side  of  a  triangle, 
of  which  the  base  is  the  breadth  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  apex 
at  the  knee-joints.    The  base  of  this  triangle  is  longest  in  the 
female,  and  consequently  that  sex  is  usually  knock-kneed. 
Head,b  articulates  with  the  acetabulum,  forms  about  two- 
fifths  of  a  sphere,  and  has  an  oval  depression^  below  its 
centre  for  the  attachment  of  the  ligaraentum  teres. 
Neck,c  connects  the  head  with  the  shaft,  is  pyramidal  and 
flattened  ;  its  obliquity  varies  with  age,  being  less  before 
puberty,  about  1 20  to  125  degrees  in  the  adult,  and  nearly 
horizontal  to  the  shaft  in  old  or  debilitated  subjects. 
Great  Trochanter,^  a  broad,  rough,  quadrilateral  process 
directed  outwards  and  backwards  from  the  summit  of 
the  shaft  to  within  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  the  level 
of  the  head.     On  its  outer  surface  the  tendon  of  the 
gluteus  maximus  plays  over  a  bursa.     It  gives  insertion 
to  the  obturator  internus,  two  gemelli,  pyriformis,  and 
gluteus  minimus  and  medius  muscles. 
Digital  Fossa,  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  great  trochanter, 

gives  insertion  to  the  obturator  externus  muscle. 
Lesser  Trochanter,^  at  the  inferior  root  of  the  neck  pos- 
teriorly, is  small  and  conical,  and  affords  insertion  to  the 
tendon  of  the  psoas  magnus  muscle,  the  tendon  of  the 
iliacus  being  inserted  immediately  below  it. 
Inter-trochanteric  Zz«^j,  anterior  and  posterior,  the  latter  the  most  prominent ; 

to  the  anterior  is  attached  the  capsular  ligament  of  the  hip-joint. 
Linea  Quadrati,  extends  from  the  middle  of  the  posterior  inter-trochanteric 
line  about  2  inches  down  the  shaft,  and  gives  attachment  to  the  quadratus 
femoris  muscle. 


BONES    OF   THE    LEG.  51 

Shafts  is  slightly  curved  forwards,  broad  and  cylindrical  at  each  end,  and 
narrow  and  triangular  in  the  centre.  Its  nutrient  foramen  perforates  its 
posterior  surface  below  the  centre.  From  its  anterior  surface  arise  the 
crureus  and  sub-crureus  muscles. 

Lima  AsperaySS  a  crest  lying  along  the  central  third  of  the  shaft  posteriorly; 
bifurcating  above  towards  each  trochanter,  also  below  towards  the  2  con- 
dyles. To  its  outer  lip  is  attached  the  vastus  externus,  to  its  inner  lip,  the 
vastus  internus ;  and  between  them,  the  pectineus,  adductor  brevis,  and 
gluteus  maximus  above  the  short  head  of  the  biceps  below,  and  the  ad- 
ductors longus  and  magnus  along  the  greater  portion  of  the  space. 

Groove,  crossing  the  internal  condyloid  ridge,  and  lodging  the  femoral  artery. 

Popliteal  Space  h  triangular  and  smooth,  lying  between  the  condyloid  ridges, 
for  the  popliteal  artery. 

External  Condyle  i  broader  and  shorter  than  the  internal,  so  as  to  form  a 
horizontal  articulation,  the  bone  being  inclined  towards  the  median  line. 
It  gives  attachment  to  the  external  lateral  ligament,  and  the  popliteus  and 
gastrocnemius  muscles. 

Internal  Condyhyl  the  longest  by  half  an  inch;  it  gives  attachment  to  the 
internal  lateral  ligament  and  the  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

Inter-condyloid  Notch,k  lodges  the  crucial  ligaments.  In  front  the  condyles 
are  continuous  with  each  other,  forming  a  concave  depression  or  trochlea 
for  the  patella. 

Otiter  Tube?-osity,  on  the  external  condyle,  for  the  attachment  of  the  exter- 
nal lateral  ligament. 

Groove,  below  the  outer  tuberosity,  for  the  tendon  of  the  popliteus  muscle, 
terminating  in  a  depression  whence  the  muscle  takes  its  origin. 

Inner  Tuberosity,  on  the  internal  condyle,  for  the  attachment  of  the  internal 
lateral  ligament. 

Tubercle,  above  the  inner  tuberosity,  for  the  insertion  of  the  tendon  of  the 
adductor  magnus  muscle. 

Depression,  behind  the  tubercle,  for  the  tendon  of  the  inner  head  of  the 
gastrocnemius. 

THE   LEG. 

Describe  the  Tibia.  The  shin-bone  ranks  next  to  the  femur  in  respect  to 
size  and  length.  Its  form  is  prismoidal,  the  upper  extremity  being  much  larger 
than  the  lower. 

Head,  expands  into  2  lateral  tuberositieSj-^*?  which  articulate  with  the  con- 
dyles of  the  femur. 
Spine,d  projects  vertically  between  the  2  articular  surfaces,  is  bifid,  affording 
attachment  to  the  semilunar  fibro-cartilages,  and  by  depressions  in  front 
and  behind  its  base  to  the  crucial  ligaments  of  the  joint. 


52 


ANATOMY, 


Tubercle, e  anteriorly  on  the  head,  between  the  tuberosities,  for  the  insertion 

of  the  ligamentum  patellce. 
Popliteal  Notch,  posteriorly  between  the  tuberosities,  affords  attachment  to 

the  posterior  crucial  ligament. 
Groove,  on  the  inner  tuberosity  posteriorly,  for  the  insertion  of  the  tendon  of 
the  semi-membranosus  muscle. 

Facet,  on  the  outer  tuberosity  posteriorly  and  looking 
7-  downwards,  for  articulation  with   the   head  of  the 

fibula. 
Popliteal  Line,  obliquely  across  the  upper  part  of  the 
shaft  posteriorly,  affords  attachment  to  the  fascia  of 
the  popliteus,  and  parts  of  the  soleus,  flexor  longus 
digitorum,  and  tibialis  posticus  muscles. 
Nutrient  Canal,  the  largest  in  the  skeleton,  opens  just 

below  the  popliteal  line,  its  orifice  looking  upwards. 
Skaft,a  has  3  sharp  ridges, — i   in  front,  the  Crest  or 
Shin,/  and  I  on  either  side,  to  the  external  of  which 
is'^ttached  the  interosseous  membrane. 
Lower  Extremity,s  is  smaller  than  the  upper,  grooved 
posteriorly  for  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pol- 
licis ;    externally  has  a  rough  triangular  depression 
for  articulation  with  the  fibula,  and  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  inferior  interosseous  ligament.     Its  in- 
ferior surface  is  concave  and  smooth  for  articulation 
with  the  upper  surface  of  the  astragalus. 
Lnternal  Malleolus,^  projects  downwards  from  the  in- 
ternal side  of  the   lower  extremity.     It   articulates 
with  the  astragalus,  is   grooved   posteriorly  for   the 
tendons  of  the  tibialis   posticus   and   flexor   longus 
digitorum  muscles,  and  affords  attachment  to  the  in- 
ternal lateral  ligament. 
Describe  the  Fibula.     It  is  a  long  slender  bone,  placed  nearly  parallel 
with  the  tibia  on  the  outer  side  of  the  leg.     It  is  also  called  the  peroneous,  or 
peroneal  bone. 

Head,J  articulates  with  the  external  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  by  a  flat  facet. 
Externally  it  has  a  prominence  for  the  attachment  of  the  long  external 
lateral  ligament  of  the  knee-joint. 
Styloid  Process,  projects  upwards  from  the  head  posteriorly,  and  gives  inser- 
tion to  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle,  and  the  short  external  lateral 
ligament  of  the  knee-joint. 
Shaft  i  is  triangular  and  twisted  on  itself,  having  3  marked  ridges,  the 


BONES   OF  THE   FOOT. 


53 


innermost  of  which  is  sharp  for  the  attachment  of  the  interosseus  mem- 
brane. The  shaft  arches  backwards,  and  gives  attachment  to  8  of  the  12 
muscles  of  the  leg. 

Nutrient  Canal,  opens  about  the  centre  of  the  shaft  posteriorly,  its  orifice 
looking  downwards. 

External  Malleolus Ji  is  the  lower  extremity  of  the  bone.  It  is  larger  and 
longer  than  the  internal,  articulates  with  the  astragalus  by  a  triangular 
facet,  and  is  grooved  posteriorly  for  the  tendons  of  the  peroneus  longus 
and  brevis  muscles.  Its  edge  affords  attachment  to  the  external  lateral 
ligament  of  the  ankle-joint. 


\ 


! 


THE   FOOT. 

How  are  the  bones  of  the   Foot  divided?    Into  the   tarsus  (7),  meta- 
tarsus (5),  and  phalanges  (14).     Total,  26  bones. 

Name  the  bones  of  the  Tarsus.     They  are  placed  in  2  rows  side  by  side, 
2  bones  in  the  external  row,  5  in  ihe  internal,  as  follows,  viz. — 
Internally,—       Astragalus.^  Scaphoid.'^  3  Cuneiform. €/& 

Externally, —      Os  calcis.'^  Cuboid.^ 

How  many  Articulations  are  in  the  Tarsus  ?    28,  each  bone  articulating 
with  4  others,  except  the  os  calcis,  which  articulates 
with  2,  and  the  external  cuneiform  with  6  bones. 

What  Peculiarities  have  the  Tarsal  Bones  ? 
They  may  be  divided  transversely  at  the  astragalo- 
scaphoid-calcaneo-cuboid  articulation,  the  site  of 
Chopart's  operation. 

The  Astragalus,*^  has  a  rounded  head,  a  convex 
surface  on  which  is  a  broad  articular  facet,  and 
on  its  inferior  surface  a  deep  groove  between 
2  articular  facets. 
The  Os  Calcis,c  is  a  large  bone,  having  on  its  upper 
surface  a  deep  groove  for  the  interosseous  liga- 
ment, between  2  articular  surfaces;  anteriorly 
a  large  irregular  portion,  the  head;  and  pos- 
teriorly an  elongated  portion  forming  the  Heel. 
On  its  internal  surface  is  a  projection,  the  Susten- 
taculum Tali,  which  supports  the  internal  articu- 
lating surface  ;  below  which  process  the  bone  is 
deeply  grooved  for  the  plantar  vessels  and  nerves 
and  the  flexor  tendons.  To  the  os  calcis  are  at- 
tached 8  muscles  and  the  plantar  fascia. 
5* 


54  ANATOMY. 

The  Scaphoid  Bone,d  is  boat-shaped,  has  3  facets  anteriorly  for  the  cunei- 
form bonts,  a  concave  surface  posteriorly  for  the  astragalus,  and  a  facet 
externally  for  the  cuboid  bone.  A  tubercle  is  situated  on  the  lower  sur- 
face internally,  for  the  insertion  of  the  tibialis  posticus  muscle. 

The  Cuboid  Bone J^  has  3  articular  surfaces,  and  a  groove  inferiorly  for  the 
tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus. 

The  Internal  Cuneiform  Bone^e  the  largest  of  the  3,  has  a  tubercle  on  its 
plantar  surface  for  the  insertion  of  parts  of  the  tendons  of  the  tibialis 
anticus  and  tibialis  posticus  muscles. 

The  Middle  Cuneiform  Bone,/  is  small  and  wedge-shaped  with  the  narrow 
end  downwards.  Its  anterior  surface  is  considerably  behind  the  line  of 
the  tarso-meiatarsal  articulation,  thus  forming  a  recess  into  which  the  base 
of  the  second  metatarsal  bone  fits. 

The  External  Cuneiform  Bone,g  is  also  wedge-shaped,  but  longer  than  the 
middle  one;  and  affords  origin  to  i  muscle,  the  flexor  brevis  pollicis. 

Describe  the  Metatarsus.  The  metatarsal  bones  i  are  5  in  number,  are 
long  bones,  having  each  a  shaft  and  2  extremities.  Their  bases  articulate 
with  the  tarsal  bones  and  with  each  other ;  their  heads  with  the  first  row  of 
phalanges. 

jst  Metatarsal,  is  large  but  shorter  than  the   others,  and  forms  the   inner 

border  of  the  foot,  articulating  with  the  internal  cuneiform. 
2d  Metatarsal,  is  the  longest ;  its  base  has  3  facets  for  articulation  with  the 
3  cuneiform  bones  in  the  recess  formed  by  the  shortness  of  the  middle 
cuneiform. 
^d  Metatarsal,  has  2  facets  on  the  inner  side  of  its  base,  besides  the  facets 

for  the  internal  cuneiform  and  the  4th  metatarsal  bone. 
^th  Metatarsal,  articulates  with  the  cuboid  bone,  and  also  with  the  internal 

cuneiform. 
^th  Metatarsal,  articulates  obliquely  with  the  cuboid  bone,  and  has  a  tuber- 
cular projection  on  the  outer  surface  of  its  base,  which  forms  the  guide  to 
Hey's  operation. 

Describe  the  Phalanges  of  the  Foot.  They  number  14  as  in  the  hand, 
the  great  toe  having  2,  the  other  toes  3  each.  They  are  long  bones,  each 
having  a  base,  a  shaft,  and  an  anterior  extremity.  They  are  convex  above, 
concave  below,  and  articulate  by  the  bases  of  the  first  row  with  the 
bones  of  the  metatarsus.  The  anterior  extremities  of  the  distal  phalanges>i',« 
are  expanded  into  surfaces  for  the  support  of  the  nails  and  pulp  of  the 
toes. 


THE  ARTICULATIONS.  55 

THE   ARTICULATIONS. 

Into  what  Classes  are  the  Articulations  divided?  Into  3, — i.  Synarthro'sis, 
immovable;  2.  Amphiarthro'sis,  Synchondrosis,  or  Symphysis,  having  limited 
motion;  3.  Z>mr//^r^^j'w,  having  free  motion. 

How  are  the  Synarthroses  subdivided?  Into  3  divisions, — Sutura,  by 
indentations;  Schindylesis ,  by  a  plate  of  bone  into  a  cleft  in  another;  and 
Gompho^sis,  by  a  conical  process  into  a  socket.  The  Sutura  are  again  sub- 
divided into — S.  Dentata,  having  tooth-like  processes;  S.  Serrata,  with  ser- 
rated edges;  S.  Limbosa,  having  beveled  margins  and  dentated  processes;  S. 
Squamosa,  y^\i\\\\\\Ti  beveled  margins  overlapping  each  other;  ^.  Harmonia, 
contiguous  rough  surfaces  opposed  to  each  other.  The  first  3  are  also  named 
Sutura  Vera  (true  sutures)  having  indented  borders ;  the  last  2  Sutura  Notha 
(false  sutures)  being  formed  by  rough  surfaces. 

How  are  the  Diarthroses  divided  ?  Into  4  divisions, — Arthrodia,  gliding 
joint;  i5'«(3;r//z7w?>,  ball-and-socket  joint ;  6'm^/r/w/^,  hinge-joint;  and  Z>2ar- 
throsis  Rotatorius,  a  ring  surrounding  a  pivot. 

Give  an  Example  of  each  of  the  above-named  articulatiDns. 

Synarthro'sis, — bones  of  cranium  and  face,  except  the  lower  jaw. 

Sutura  Dentata, — the  inter-parietal  suture. 

Sutura  Serrata, — the  inter-frontal  suture. 

Sutura  Limbosa, — the  fronto-parietal  suture. 

Sutura  Squamosa, — the  tempora-parietal  suture. 

Sutura  Harmonia, — the  intermaxillary  symphysis. 

Schindylesis, — rostrum  of  sphenoid  with  the  vomer. 

Gompho'sis, — the  teeth  in  their  alveoli. 
Amphiarthro'sis, — the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  the  sacro-iliac,  and  pubic  sym- 
physes. 
Diarthro'ses, — 

Arthrodia, — sterno-clavicular  articulation. 

Enarthrosis, — hip-joint,  shoulder-joint. 

Ginglymus, — elbow-joint,  ankle-joint,  knee  joint. 

Diarthrosis  Rotatorius, — the  superior  radio-ulnar,  and  atlo-axoid  articula- 
tions. 

Name  the  Varieties  of  motion  in  joints  ?  There  are  7  varieties,  viz. — 
flexion,  extension,  adduction,  abduction,  rotation,  circumduction,  and  gliding 
movement. 

What  Structures  enter  into  ths  formation  of  joints?  There  are  5,  viz. — 
the  articular  lamella  of  bone,  ligaments,  cartilage,  fibro- cartilage,  and  synovial 
membrane. 


56 


ANATOMY. 


Articular  Lamella  of  bone  differs  from  ordinary  bone  tissue  in  being  more 
dense,  containing  no  Haversian  canals  nor  canaliculi,  and  having  larger 
lacunae. 

Ligaments  are  bands  of  vv^hite  fibrous  tissue,  except  the  ligamentum  sub- 
flava  and  the  ligamentum  nuchse,  which  are  both  composed  purely  of 
yellow  elastic  tissue. 

Cartilage  is  temporary  or  permanent.  The  first  forms  the  original  frame- 
work of  the  skeleton,  and  becomes  ossified.  Permanent  cartilage  is  not 
prone  to  ossification,  and  is  divided  into  3  varieties, — Artiadar,  covering 
the  ends  of  bones  in  joints;  Costal,  forming  part  of  the  skeleton  ;  Reticular^ 
arranged  in  lamellae  or  plates  to  maintain  the  shape  of  certain  parts. 

Fibro-cartilage  is  Interarticular  (menisci),  separating  the  bones  of  a  joint ; 
Connecting,  binding  bones  together;  Circumferential,  deepening  cavities; 
Stratiform,  lining  grooves. 

Synovial  Membranes  secrete  the  synovia,  a  viscid,  glairy  fluid,  and  resemble 
the  serous  membranes  in  structure.  They  are  Articular,  lubricating  joints ; 
Bursal,  forming  closed  sacs  (bursae) ;    Vaginal,  ensheathing  tendons. 

Describe  the  Vertebral  Articulations.  They  are  formed  by  the  adjacent 
surfaces  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  and  their  articular  processes,  and  are 
connected  by  the  following  ligaments,  etc. — (See  FiG.  31.) 

Lntervertebral  Fibro-cartilages,  between  the  bodies  of  all  true  vertebrae,  ex- 
cept the  axis  and  atlas. 
Anterior  Common  Ligament}  along  fronts  of  the  bodies. 
Posterior  Common  Ligament,  along  backs  of  the  bodies. 
Ligamenta  Subflava,  connect  the  laminae  of  adjacent  vertebrae. 
Capsular,^  surround  the  articular  processes,  and  are  lined  by  synovial  mem- 
brane. 
Supraspinous  and  Inter-spinous,  connect  the  spinous  processes. 
Inter-transverse,^  connect  the  transverse  processes. 

Describe  the  Occipito-atloid  Articulation.     It  is  a  double  arthrodia  formed 

by  the  condyles  of  the  occipital  bone 
with  the  superior  articular  surfaces  of  the 
atlas,  and  has  7  ligaments,  viz. — 
2  Anterior  Occipito-atloid,^  from  the  an- 
terior margin  of  the  foramen  magnum 
to  the  anterior  arch  of  the  atlas. 
Posterior  Occipito-atloid,  from  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  foramen  magnum  to  the 
posterior  arch  of  the  atlas.  It  is  per- 
forated by  the  vertebral  arteries  and  sub- 
occipital nerves. 


Fig.  29. 


THE    ARTICUIATIONS,  57 

2  Lateral,  from  the  jugular  processes  of  the  occipital  bone  to  the  bases  of  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  atlas. 

2  Capstdar,d  around  the  articular  surfaces,  lined  by  synovial  membrane. 

Describe  the  Occipito-axoid  Articulation.  Formed  by  the  occipital  bone 
and  the  odontoid  process  of  the  axis,  which  do  not  articulate  with  each  other 
strictly,  but  are  connected  by  4  ligaments. 

Occipito-axoid'^  {^Apparatus  Ligamentosus  Colli),  a  continuation  of  the  posterior 
common  spinal  ligament  to  the  basilar  process  of  the  occipital  bone. 

2  Lateral  Occipito-odontoid^  ( Check  Ligaments),  from  the  head  of  the  odontoid 
process  to  the  sides  of  the  occipital  condyles. 

Vej'tical  Occipito-odontoid  [Ligamentum  Suspensoriuni),  from  the  anterior 
margin  of  the  foramen  magnum  to  the  odontoid  apex. 

Describe  the  Atlo-axoid  Articulation.  It  is  a  double  arthrodia  between  the 
articular  processes,  a  double  diarthrosis  rotatorius  between  the  atlas  and  the 
odontoid  process,  and  has  6  ligaments,  and  4  synovial  membranes. 

2  Anterior  and  i  Posterior  Atlo-axoid,  continuations  of  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior common  spinal  ligaments. 

2  Capsular,  surrounding  the  articular  surfaces,  each  lined  by  a  synovial 
membrane. 

Transverse,  or  Cruciform  Ligament,  divides  the  spinal  foramen  of  the  atlas 
into  two  portions,  stretching  across  between  the  tubercles  on  the  inner 
sides  of  the  articular  processes.  It  holds  the  odontoid  process  in  place, 
having  a  synovial  membrane  interposed.  Another  synovial  membrane  is 
situated  between  the  process  and  the  anterior  arch.  The  transverse  liga- 
ment sends  two  vertical  slips,  one  upwards,  the  other  downwards,  from 
which  it  is  named  the  Cruciform  Ligament. 

Describe  the  Temporo-maxillary  Articulation.  A  double  arthrodia  between 
the  condyle  of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  anterior  part  of  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the 
temporal  bone.  It  has  2  synovial  membranes  with  an  inter-articular  hbro- 
cartilage  between  them,  and  4  ligaments,  viz. — 

External  Lateral,  from  the  tubercle  of  the  zygoma  to  the  outer  side  of  the 
neck   of  the   condyle   of  the 
lower  jaw.  ^^^-  3°- 

Lnternal Lateral,<i  irovsx  the  spine 
of  the  sphenoid  to  the  margin 
of  the  inferior  dental  fora- 
men. 

Stylo-maxillary,/  from  the  sty- 
loid process  of  the  temporal 
bone  to  the  angle  of  the  in- 
ferior maxillary. 


58 


ANATOMY. 


Capstilar,c  from  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity  and  the  eminentia  articularis 
to  the  neck  of  the  inferior  maxillary  condyle. 
Nerves  are  derived  from  the  auriculo-temporal  and  masseteric  branches  of 
the  inferior  maxillary. 

Describe  the  Costo-vertebral  Articulations.     They  are  each  a  double  ar- 

throdia  between  the  head  of  the  rib  and  the  bodies  of  2  adjacent  vertebrae, 

except  in  the  1st,  loth,  nth,  and  I2th  ribs,  which  are  each  a  single  arthrodia, 

as  they  articulate  with  but  i  vertebra  each.     Their  ligaments  are  3,  viz, — 

Anterior    Costo-vertebral^    or    Stellate    Ligament,    consists    of    3    bundles, 

which  fasten  the  anterior  part  of 
^'^"  ^''  the   head  of  the    rib  to  the. inter- 

vertebral disk  and  the  2  adjacent 
bodies. 
Inter-articular  Costo-vertebral,  in  the 
interior  of  the  joint,  from  the  crest 
on  the  head  of  the  rib  to  the  inter- 
vertebral disk ;  on  each  side  there 
is  a  separate  synovial  membrane. 
Capsular,  surrounding  the  articular 
surfaces. 

Describe  the  Costo-transverse  Articulations.  They  are  10  arlhrodial  articu- 
lations between  the  tubercles  of  the  first  10  ribs  and  the  transverse  processes 
of  the  vertebrae  next  below.  Their  ligaments  are  3,  viz. — Anterior,  AJiddle, 
and  Posterior  Costo-trans7>erse. 

Describe  the  Costo-stemal  Articulations.  One  a  synarthrodia!,  6  are  ar- 
throdial  articulations,  between  the  costal  cartilages  and  the  margin  of  the 
sternum.  The  first  has  no  synovial  membrane,  the  second  only  has  an  inter- 
articular  fibro-cartilage.  Each  has  3  ligaments, — the  Anterior  and  Posterior 
Costo-stemal,  and  a  Capsular.  The  Costo-xiphoid  Ligament  connects  the  xiphoid 
appendix  to  the  cartilage  of  the  6th  or  7th  rib. 

How  are  the  Costal  Cartilages  connected  with  the  ribs  and  with  each 
other  ?  With  the  ribs  by  a  depression  on  the  end  of  each  rib,  strengthened  by 
the  blending  together  of  the  periosteum  and  the  perichondrium.  The  carti- 
lages of  the  lower  ribs,  sometimes  from  the  5th  to  the  loth  inclusive,  articu- 
late with  each  other  by  their  borders  and  for  each  a  capsular  and  an  intercostal 
ligament,  with  3  synovial  membranes  for  the  3  articulations  between  the 
6th  and  the  9th  cartilages. 

What  are  the  Ligaments  of  the  St?mum  ?  An  anterior  sternal  and  a 
posterior  sternal  ligament,  with  a  layer  of  cartilage  between  the  manubrium 
and  the  gladiolus. 


THE   ARTICULATIONS. 


59 


Fig.  32. 


Describe  the  Sacro-vertebral  Articulation.  It  is  similar  to  the  other  ver- 
tebral articulations,  but  has  2  additional  ligaments  on  each  side,  viz. — 

Lumbosacral,  from  the  transvei-se  processes  of  the  5th  lumbar  vertebra  to 

the  base  of  the  sacrum  laterally  and  anteriorly. 
Lumbo-iliac,  from  the  apices  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  5th  lumbar 

vertebra  to  the  crest  of  the  ilium. 
Dascribe  the  Sacro-coccygeal  Articulation.     It  is  an  amphiarthrodial  joint, 
and  has  3  ligaments,  viz. — 

Anterior  Sacro-coccygeal.  Posterior  Sacro-coccygeal. 

Interarticular  Fibro-cartilage,  in  the  joint. 

Describe  the  Sacro-iliac  Articulation.  It  is  an  amphiarthrodial  joint, 
formed  by  the  auricular  surfaces  of  the  sacrum  and  ilium.  Its  ligaments  on 
each  side  are  as  follows,  viz. — 

Anterior  Sacro-iliac.  Posterior  Sacro-iliac^ 

Oblique  Sacro-iliac. 
Describe   the   Sacro-isch'atic   Articulation.      Its    ligaments    convert   the 
sacro-sciatic  notches  into  foramina,  the  greater  notch  by  the  lesser  ligament, 
the    lesser   notch   by   the 
greater  ligament.     These 
foramina     are     described 
under  the  ilium   and   is- 
chium l)ones. 

Great  Sacro  sciatic 
Ligament,  ^^  i*  from 
the  posterior  inferior 
spine  of  the  ilium 
and  the  posterior  sur- 
faces and  margins  of 
the  sacrum  and  coc- 
cyx, to  the  inner 
margin  of  the  tuber- 
osity and  the  ascend- 
ing ramus  of  the 
ischium. 
Lesser  Sacro-sciatic  TAgament}^  ^^  from  the  margins  of  the  sacrum  and  coccyx, 

into  the  spine  of  the  ischium. 
Describe  the  Pubic  Articulation.     It  is  an  amphiarthrodial  joint,  formed  by 
the  2  pubic  bones.    It  has  an  interarticular  fibro-cartilage  and  4  ligaments,  viz. — 
Anterior  Pubic.  Posterior  Pubic.  Supra-pubic. 

Sub-pubic,  forming  a  fibrous  arch  between  the  rami. 


60 


ANATOMY. 


Fig.  33. 


Describe  the  Stemo-clavicular  Articulation.  It  is  an  arthrodial  joint, 
formed  by  the  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle  with  the  sternum  and  the  cartilage 
of  the  1st  rib.  It  has  an  interarticular  fibro-cartilage,  2  synovial  membranes, 
and  4  ligaments,  viz. — 

Anterior  Stemo-clavicular.  Interclavicular. 

Posterior  Stemo-clavicular.  Costo- clavicular  or  Rhomboid. 

Describe  the  Scapu!o-clavicular  Articulation.  It  is  an  arthrodial  joint, 
formed  by  the  outer  extremity  of  the  clavicle  and  the  acromion  process  of  the 
scapula.  It  frequently  has  an  interarticular  fibro-cartilage  and  2  synovial 
membranes;  usually  but  I  synovial  membrane  is  present,  and  3  ligaments, 
viz. — 

Superior  Acromio  clavicular."^     Coraco  clavicular"^  j  Trapezoid,  externally. 

Inferior  Acromio-clavicular.  divided  into —     I  Conoid,  internally. 

What  are  the  proper  ligaments  of  the  Scapula  ?  They  are  2,  the  coraco- 
acromial,  and  the  transverse,  as  follovirs. — 

Coraco-acromial,^  completes  the  vault  par- 
tially formed  by  the  2  processes  over  the 
head  of  the  humerus. 
Transverse,^  from  the  base  of  the  coracoid 
process  to  the  margin  of  the  suprascapular 
notch,  converting  it  into  a  foramen,  for 
the  supra-scapular  nerve. 

Describe    the    Shoulder-joint.      It  is   an 

enarthrodial  joint,  formed  by  the  head  of  the 
humerus  and  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula. 
It  has  a  Synovial  Afembrajte  which  is  reflected 
upon  the  tendons  of  the  biceps,  subscapularis, 
and  infraspinatus  muscles,  and  communicates 
with  bursse  beneath  the  2  latter  tendons.  Its 
Arteries  are  derived  from  the  anterior  and 
posterior  circumflex  and  the  suprascapular; 
its  Nerves  from  the  circumflex  and  the  supra- 
scapular.    It  has  3  ligaments,  viz. — 

Capsular^  from  the  margin  of  the  glenoid  cavity  to  the  anatomical  neck  of 
the  humerus :  has  3  openings  for  the  reflexions  of  the  synovial  membrane 
over  the  tendons. 
Coraco-humeral^  intimately  united  with  the  capsular,  extends  from  the  cora- 
coid process  to  the  greater  tuberosity. 
Glenoid,  a  fibro-cartilaginous  ring,  continuous  above  with  the  tendon  of  the 


THE    ARTICULATIONS. 


61 


long  head  of  the  biceps,''  and  attached  around  the  mar-  Fig.  34. 

gin  of  the  glenoid  cavity  in  order  to  deepen  the  articu- 
lar surface. 
Describe  the  Elbow-joint.  It  is  a  ginglymus  articulation, 
formed  by  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  with  the  greater 
sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna  and  the  head  of  the  radius.  Its 
Synovial  Membrane  is  reflected  over  the  ligaments,  and  dips 
down  between  the  surfaces  of  the  superior  radio-ulnar  articu- 
lation. Its  Arteries  are  derived  from  the  anastomotica  magna, 
radial  ulnar,  and  interosseous  recurrent,  superior  and  inferior 
profunda  arteries.  Its  Nerves  are  branches  of  the  ulnar  and 
the  musculo-cutaneous.     It  has  4  ligaments.' — 

Anterior^  from  the  inner  condyle  and  anterior  sutface  of 
the  humerus  to  the  orbicular  ligament  of  the  radius  and 
the  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 
Posterior^  from  the  posterior  surface  of  the  humerus  to  the 

olecranon  process  of  the  ulna. 
External  Lateral,^  from  the  external  condyle  of  the  hu- 
merus to  the  orbicular  ligament  of  the  radius. 
Internal  Lateral,  from  the  internal  condyle  of  the  humerus 

to  the  coronoid  and  olecranon  processes  of  the  ulna. 
Describe  the  Radio-ulnar  Articulations.    They  are  3  in  number,  as  follows, 
viz. — 

Superior  radio-ulnar  articulation  is  a  lateral  ginglymoid  joint,  formed 
by  the  head  of  the  radius  and  the  lesser  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna.  Its 
synovial  membrane  is  a  continuation  of  that  in  the  elbow-joint.  It  has  I 
ligament,  the — 

Orbicular  Ligament,^  forms  four- fifths  of  a  circle  and  surrounds  the  neck  of 

the  radius.     It  is  attached  to  the  margins  of  the  lesser  sigmoid  cavity  of 

the  ulna,  and  to  the  external  lateral  ligament  of  the  elbow-joint. 

Middle  radio-ulnar  articulation  is  formed  by  the  shafts  of  the  radius 

and  ulna,  which  do  not  touch  each  other,  but  are  connected  by  2  ligaments,  as 

follows,  viz. — 

Oblique  Ligament,  from  the  tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  coronoid  process  of 

the  ulna  to  the  shaft  of  the  radius. 
Interosseous  Membrane^  obliquely  downwards  from  the  interosseous  ridge  on 
the  radius  to  that  on  the  ulna.     Through  the  interval  between  its  upper 
border  and  the  oblique  ligament,  the  posterior  interosseous  vessels  pass. 
Inferior  radio-ulnar  articulation  is  a  lateral  ginglymoid  joint,  formed 
by  the  head  of  the  ulna  and  the  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  radius.     Its  Synovial 
Membrane  (membrana  sacciformis)  is  very  loose,  and  sometimes  communicates 
6 


62  ANATOMY, 

with  that  of  the  wrist  joint  through  an  opening  in  the  triangular  fibro-cartilage 
which  separates  the  head  of  the  ulna  from  the  wrist-joint,  and  acts  as  one  of 
the  ligaments  of  this  articulation,  which  are  3,  viz. — 

Anterior  Radio- ulnar.  Posterior  Radio-ulnar. 

Triangular  Interarticular  Fibro- cartilage. 
Describe  the  Wrist-joint.  It  is  chiefly  an  enarthrodial  articulation,  though 
incapable  of  rotation,  and  is  formed  by  the  lower  end  of  the  radi^us  and  the  tri- 
angular fibro-cartilage,  with  the  scaphoid  semilunar  and  cuneiform  bones  of  the 
carpus.  Its  Arteries  are  the  anterior  and  posterior  carpal  from  both  the  radial 
and  ulnar,  the  anterior  and  posterior  interosseous  and  ascending  branches  from 
the  deep  palmar  arch.  Its  Nerves  are  derived  from  the  ulnar;  it  is  lined  by  a 
synovial  membrane,  and  has  4  ligaments,  viz. — 

External  Lateral  (radio-carpal).  Anterior. 

Internal  Lateral  (ulno-carpal).  Posterior. 

Describe  the  Carpal  Articulations.  They  are  in  3  sets,  (i)  between  the 
bones  of  the  first  row,  (2)  between  the  bones  of  the  second  row,  (3)  between 
the  2  rows  of  bones. 

(i)  The  scaphoid,  semilunar,  and  cuneiform  bones  are  connected  together 
by  2  Dorsal,  2  Palmar,  and  2  Interosseous  Ligaments.  The  pisiform  bone 
has  a  separate  capsular  ligament  and  synovial  membrane  and  2  fasciculi 
connecting  it  with  the  unciform  and  the  5th  metacarpal. 

(2)  The  4  bones  of  the  second  row  are  connected  together  by  j  Dorsal,  j 
Palmar,  and  j  Interosseous  Ligaments. 

(3)  The  2  rows  of  bones  are  united  by  a  Dorsal,  a  Palmar,  and  2  Lateral 
Ligaments,  the  last  named  being  continuous  with  the  lateral  ligaments  of 
the  wrist-joint. 

Describe  the  Carpo-metacarpal  Articulations.  That  of  the  thumb  with  the 
trapezium  is  an  enarthrodial  joint,  having  a  Capsular  Ligament  and  a  separate 
synovial  membrane.  The  4  inner  metacarpal  bones  form  4  arthrodial  joints 
with  the  adjacent  carpal  bones  by  6  Dorsal,  8  Palmar,  and  2  Interosseous  Liga- 
ments, irregularly  disposed. 

Describe  the  Synovial  Membranes  of  the  Wrist.  They  number  5,  and  are 
situated  as  follows,  viz. — 

The  First,  or  Membrana  Sacciformis,  between  the  head  of  the  ulna,  the  sig- 
moid cavity  of  the  radius,  and  the  triangular  interarticular  fibro-cartilage. 
The  Second,  between  the  lower  end  of  the  radius,  the  triangular  fibro-carti- 
lage, and  the  scaphoid,  semilunar,  and  cuneiform  bones  of  the  carpus. 
The  Third,  between  all  the  carpal  bones  except  the  pisiform,  and  between 
the  bases  of  the  inner  4  metacarpal  bones ;  but  it  extends  only  halfway 
into  the  2  intervals  between  the  3  proximal  bones  of  the  carpus. 


THE   ARTICULATIONS.  63 

The  Fourth,  between  the  trapezium  and  the  metacarpal  hone  of  the  thumb. 
The  Fifthy  between  the  cuneiform  and  pisiform  bones. 

Describe  the  Metacarpo-metacarpal  Articulations.  The  4  inner  meta- 
carpal bones  are  connected  together  at  their  bases  by  Dorsal,  Palmar,  and 
Interosseous  Ligaments;  and  at  their  digital  extremities  by  th^  Transverse 
Ligament. 

Describe  the  remaining  Articulations  of  the  Hand.  The  metacarpo- 
phalangeal and  the  phalangeal  articulations  are  all  ginglymoid  joints,  and  each 
has  an  Anterior  and  2  Lateral  Ligaments,  the  former  being  lined  each  with  a 
synovial  membrane.  There  are  no  posterior  ligaments  to  these  articulations, 
the  extensor  tendons  of  the  hand  supplying  their  places. 

Describe  the  Hip-joint.  It  is  a  true  enarthrodial  articulation,  formed  by 
the  head  of  the  femur  with  the  acetabulum  of  the  os  innominatum.  Its  Syno- 
vial Membrane  is  extensive,  investing  most  of  the  head  and  neck  of  the  femur, 
the  capsular  cotyloid  and  teres  ligaments,  and  the  cavity  of  the  acetabulum. 
Its  Arteries  are  derived  from  the  obturator,  sciatic,  internal  circumflex,  and 
gluteal.  Its  Nerves  are  branches  from  the  sacral  plexus,  great  sciatic,  obtu- 
rator, and  accessory  obturator.     It  has  5  ligaments,  as  follows,  viz. — 

Capsular,  from  the  margin  of  the  acetabulum  and  the  transverse  ligament, 
into  the  base  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  above,  the  anterior  inter-trochan- 
teric  line  in  front,  and  to  the  middle  of  the  neck  of  the  bone,  behind. 
Iliofemoral  or  Y-ligament,  from  the  anterior  inferior  spine  of  the  ilium,  into 
the  anterior  inter- trochanteric  line  by  two  fasciculi.     It  is  a  dissected  por- 
tion of  the  capsular  ligament  which  is  very  strong  anteriorly. 
Ligamentum  Teres,  from  a  depression  on  the  head  of  the  femur  into  the 
margins  of  the  cotyloid  notch  of  the  acetabulum  and  into  the  transverse 
ligament,  by  two  fasciculi. 
Cotyloid,  a  fibro-cartilaginous  band  surrounding  the  margin  of  the  acetab- 
ulum in  order  to  deepen  its  cavity. 
Transverse,  that  part  of  the  cotyloid  ligament  which  crosses  over  the  coty- 
loid notch  converting  it  into  a  foramen. 
Describe  the  Knee-joint.     It  is  a  ginglymus  articulation,  formed  by  the 
condyles  of  the  femur  with  the  head  of  the  tibia,  and  the  patella  in  front.     Its 
Synovial  Alembrane  is  the  largest  in  the  body,  being   reflected  for  2  or  3 
inches  over  the  anterior  surface  of  the  femur,  where  it  is  supported  by  the  sub- 
crureus  muscle,  also  over  its  condyles,  the  patella,  semilunar  cartilages,  crucial 
ligaments,  and  head  of  the  tibia ;  and  is  prolonged  through  an  opening  in  the 
capsular  ligament  beneath  the  tendon  of  the  popliteus.    Its  Arteries  are  derived 
from  the  anastomotica  magna,  the  5  articular  branches  of  the  popliteal,  and 
the  recurrent  branch  of  the  anterior  tibial.     Its  Nerves  are  branches  of  the 


64 


ANATOMY, 


obturator,  anterior  crurul,  external  and  internal  popliteal.     It  has  14  ligaments, 
of  which  6  are  external  and  8  internal,  as  follows : — 

Anterior,  or  Ligojfiejitum  Patella,  is  a  continuation  of  the  tendon  of  the 


Fig.  35. 


rectus  femoris  muscle,  extending  from  the  apex  of  the 
patella  to  the  lower  part  of  the  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 
Posterior,  or  Ligamentum  Winslowii}  from  the  inner 
tuberosity  of  the  tibia  to  the  external  condyle  of  the 
femur,  being  partly  derived  from  the  tendon  of  the 
semimembranosus  muscle. ^ 
Internal  Lateral^  from   the   internal   condyle  of   the 
femur  to  the  internal  surface  of  the  tibia  and  semi- 
lunar cartilage. 
2  External  Lateral^  from  the  external  condyle  of  the 
femur  to  the  head  of  the  fibula.     These  ligaments  are 
a  Long  anteriorly  and  a  Short  posteriorly,  separated 
by  the  tendon  of  the  biceps. 
Capsular,  is  only  present  where  intervals  are  left  by  the 
preceding  ligaments.     It  is  thin  but  very  strong. 
The  Internal  ligaments  are  as  follows: — 

Anterior  Crucial^  from  the  depression  in  front  of  the  spine  of  the  tibia  to 

the  inner  side  of  the  outer  condyle  of  the  femur. 
Posterior  Crucial^  from  the  same  depression,  to  the  outer  side  of  the  inner 
condyle.  [To  remember  the  positions  and  insertions  of  these  crucial  liga- 
ments, let  the  student  cross  his  index  fingers  over  each  knee  in  succession; 
when  over  the  right  knee  placing  the  right  finger  in  front,  when  over  the 
left  knee  the  left  finger  in  front.  The  positions  of  the  fingers  will  then  in 
each  case  correspond  with  those  of  the  respective  crucial  ligaments,] 


Fig.  36. 


2  Semilunar  Fibro- cartilages^  external  and  internal,  are 
situated  between  the  articular  surfaces,  and  attached  to 
the  depressions  in  front  and  behind  the  spine  of  the  tibia. 

Transverse,^  is  a  connecting  slip  between  the  semilunar 
fibro-cartilages  anteriorly. 

Coronary^  are  short  bands  connecting  the  outer  margins 
of  the  fibro-cartilages  to  the  tibia  and  the  adjacent  lig- 
aments. 

Ligamentum  Mticostim,  is  a  triangular  fold  of  the  syn 
ovial  membrane  which  at  the  lower  border  of  the  patella 
is  given  off  to  the  intercondyloid  notch  of  the  femur. 

Ligamenta  Alaria,  are  fringes  on  the  sides  of  the  liga- 
mentum mucosum,  and  are  attached  to  the  sides  of 
the  patella. 


THF,    ARTICULATIONS,  65 

Bursce  in  the  vicinity  of  this  joint  are  5,  viz. — I  under  the  ligamentum  patellce," 
I  between  the  patella  and  the  skin;  I  betw^een  the  internal  lateral  ligament 
and  the  tendons  crossing  it ;  sometimes  i  replacingthe  synovial  pouch  on  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  femur;  and  occasionally  i  in  the  popliteal  space  re- 
placing the  synovial  pouch  usually  situated  therein. 

Describe   the   Tibio-fibular   Articulations.     They   are   3   in   number,   as 

follows,  viz. — 

Superior  tibio-fibular  articulation,  is  an  arthrodial  joint,  formed  by 
the  contiguous  surfaces  of  the  bones.  It  has  a  Synovial  Membrane  which  is 
sometimes  continuous  with  that  of  the  knee-joint,  and  2  ligaments,  the — 

Anterior  and  Posterior  Superior  Tibio-fibular^^  which  connect  the  head  of 
the  fibula  with  the  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia. 

Middle' tibio-fibular  articulation.  The  shafts  of  these  bones  do  not 
touch  each  other,  but  are  connected  by  the  Interosseous  Membrane  extending 
between  their  contiguous  borders,  and  perforated,  above  for  the  anterior  tibial 
artery,  below  for  the  anterior  peroneal  vessels. 

Inferior  tibio-fibular  articulation,  is  an  amphi-arthrodial  joint, 
formed  by  the  contiguous  rough  surfaces  on  the  bones.  Its  Synovial  Mem- 
brane is  derived  from  that  of  the  ankle-joint,  and  it  has  4  ligaments,  viz. — 

Inferior  Interosseous,  continuous  with  the  interosseous  membrane. 

Anterior  and  Posterior  Inferior  Fibio  fibular,  from  the  margins  of  the  ex- 
ternal malleolus  to  the  front  and  back  of  the  tibia. 

Transverse,  posteriorly  between  the  2  malleoli. 

Describe  the  Ankle-joint.  It  is  a  ginglymoid  articulation,  formed  by  the 
lower  ends  of  the  tibia  and  fibula  and  their  malleoli,  with  the  astragalus.  Its 
Synovial  Membrane  is  prolonged  upwards  between  the  tibia  and  fibula  for  a 
short  distance.  Its  arteries  are  derived  from  the  malleolar  branches  of  the 
anterior  tibial  and  peroneal  arteries ;  and  its  Nerves  from  the  anterior  tibial 
nerve.     It  has  3  ligaments,  viz. — 

Anterior,  connecting  the  margins  of  the  tibia  and  astragalus. 

Internal  Late?'al,  or  Deltoid  Ligament,  from  the  internal  malleolus  to  the 

3  adjacent  tarsal  bones. 
External  Lateral,  by  anterior  posterior  and  middle  fasciculi,  from  the  ex- 
ternal malleolus  to  the  astragalus  and  os  calcis. 
Describe  the  Tarsal  Articulations.     They  are  in  3  sets,  (i)  between  the 
bones  of  the  first  row,  (2)  between  the  bones  of  the  second  row,  (3)  between 
the  2  rows  of  bones. 

(l.)  The  astragalus  and  os  calcis  are  united  by  3  ligaments. 

External  Calcaneo-astragaloid.  Interosseous. 

Posterior  Calcaneo-astragaloid, 
6*  E 


(2.)  The  scaphoid,  cuboid,  and  three  cuneiform  bones  are  united  by  an  ir- 
regular number  of  U>orsa/  and  Plantar  and  4  Interosseus  ligaments,  which 
latter  are  arranged  transversely. 
(3.)  The  2rrows  of  bones  are  united  by  7  ligaments  viz, — 

Superior  Astragalo  scaphoid.  Inferior  Calcaneo-scaphoid. 

Superior  Calcaneo-cuboid.  Short  Calcaneo-cuboid. 

Superior  Calcaneo-scaphoid.  Long  Calcaneo-cuboid. 

Interosseous.^  or  Internal  Calcaneo-cuboid. 
Describe  the  Tarso-meta tarsal  Articulations.  They  are  5  arthrodial 
joints  formed  by  the  bases  of  the  metatarsal  bones  with  the  adjacent  bones 
of  the  tarsus,  the  2d  metatarsal  bone  articulating  with  all  3  cuneiform  in 
the  recess  formed  by  the  shortness  of  the  second  cuneiform.  They  are  united 
by  Dorsal y  Plantar,  and  3  Interosseous  Ligaments.  The  2d  metatarsal  bone 
has  3  dorsal  ligaments,  i  from  each  cuneiform  bone.  The  interosseous 
ligaments  pass  from  the  2d  and  3d  metatarsal  bones  to  the  internal  and  ex- 
ternal cuneiform. 

Describe  the  Synovial  Membranss  of  the  Tarsus  and  Metatarsus. 
They  are  6  in  number,  and  are  situated  as  follows,  viz. — 

The  First,  between  the  os  calcis  and  the  astragalus,  behind  the  interosseous 

ligament. 
The  Second,  between  the  same  bones  in  front  of  the  interosseous  ligament, 

also  between  the  astragalus  and  the  scaphoid. 
The  Third,  between  the  os  calcis  and  the  cuboid. 

The  Fourth,  between  the  scaphoid  and  the  3  cuneiform  bones,  running 
backwards  between  the  scaphoid  and  the  cuboid,  forwards  between  the 
cuneiform  bones,  between  the  external  cuneiform  and  the  cuboid,  between 
the  middle  and  external  cuneiform  and  the  bases  of  the  2d  and  3d 
metatarsal,  passing  also  between  the  bases  of  these  bones  and  the  4th 
metatarsal. 
The  Fifth,  between  the  cuboid  and  the  4th  and  5th  metatarsal  bones,  also 

running  forwards  between  their  bases. 
The  Sixth,  between  the  internal  cuneiform  and  the  base  of  the  ist  meta- 
tarsal bone. 
Describe  the  Metatarso-metatarsal  Articulations.     The  metatarsal  bones 
are  connected  together,  except  the  first,  at  their  bases  by  Dorsal,  Plantar,  and 
Interosseous  Ligaments ;  and  all  5  are  connected  at  their  digital  extremities 
by  the  Transverse  Metatarsal  Ligament. 

Describe  the  remaining  ArticulatiDns  of  the  Foot.  The  metatarso- 
phalangeal and  the  phalangeal  articulations  are  similar  to  those  in  the  hand, 
each  having  an  Interior  or  Plantar,  and  2  Lateral  Ligaments.  The  extensor 
tendons  of  the  foot  supply  the  places  of  posterior  ligaments. 


THE  MUSCLES   AND   FASCIA.  67 

THE   MUSCLES   AND  FASCIA. 

What  are  the  Muscles?  They  are  the  active  organs  of  locomotion,  formed 
of  bundles  of  reddish  fibres  endowed  with  the  property  of  shortening  themselves 
upon  irritation,  which  is  called  muscular  contractility,  and  chemically  consisting 
of  syntonin,  or  muscular  fibrin. 

How  are  the  Muscles  divided  ?  Into  2  great  classes,  ( i )  Voluntary,  Striped^ 
or  Muscles  of  animal  life,  comprise  those  which  are  under  the  control  of  the 
will.  (2)  Involuntary,  Unstriped,  or  Muscles  of  organic  life,  are  those  which 
are  not  under  the  control  of  the  will. 

Voluntary  Muscular  Fibre  consists  of  fasciculi  about  ^1^  inch  in  diameter, 
each  surrounded  by  a  tubular  membranous  sheath,  the  perimysium;  and  marked 
by  fine  striae  passing  around  them  in  curved  parallel  lines  about  yy^^o  i^^ch 
apart.  These  fasciculi  are  formed  oi  fibrillce,  each  about  j^^^^y  inch  thick, 
also  striated,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  row  of  minute  particles,  the 
"sarcous  elements"  of  Bowman,  and  surrounded  by  cellular  tissue,  the  sarco- 
lemma. 

Involuntary  Muscular  Fibre  consists  of  flattened  fusiform  or  spindle-shaped 
fibres,  averaging  about  y^VcT  '"^^  ^^  breadth,  consisting  of  elongated  cells,  and 
bound  together  in  bundles  by  areolar  tissue.  These  fibres  are  found  in  the 
alimentary  canal,  in  the  posterior  wall  of  the  trachea,  in  the  bronchi,  the  ducts 
of  certain  glands,  in  the  ureters,  bladders,  urethra,  genitalia  of  both  sexes,  walls 
of  all  arteries  and  most  veins  and  lymphatics,  in  the  iris  and  ciliary  muscle, 
and  in  the  skin. 

What  are  Tendons  and  Aponeuroses  ?  Tendons  are  white,  glistening  cords 
or  bands  formed  of  white  fibrous  tissue  almost  entirely,  have  few  vessels  and 
no  nerves,  and  serve  to  connect  the  muscles  with  the  structures  on  which  they 
are.  Aponeuroses  are  fibrous  membranes,  of  similar  structure  and  appearance, 
and  serve  the  same  purpose. 

What  are  Fasciae?  They  are  laminae  of  variable  thickness  which  invest 
[fascia,  a  bandage)  the  softer  structures.  The  superficial  fascia  is  composed 
of  fibro-areolar  tissue,  and  is  found  beneath  the  skin  almost  over  the  whole 
body.  The  deep  fascia  is  of  aponeurotic  structure,  dense,  inelastic,  and  fibrous, 
ensheathing  the  muscles  and  affording  some  of  them  attachment,  also  the  vessels 
and  nerves,  and  binding  down  the  whole  into  a  shapely  mass. 

To  what  Structures  are  Muscles  attached  ?  To  the  periosteum  and  peri- 
chondrium of  bone  and  cartilage,  to  the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue,  and  to 
ligaments.  In  the  latter  case  only  are  their  tendons  in  direct  contact  with  the 
tissue  on  which  they  are  to  act. 

How  many  Muscles  are  Double-bellied  ?  Five, — the  occipito-frontalis, 
biventer  cervicis,  digastric,  omo-hyoid,  and  the  diaphragm. 


Describe  each  Muscle  of  the  Body,  giving  its  Origin,  Insertion,  Action, 
and  Nervous  supply. 

MUSCLES   OF   THE    HEAD. 
Occipito-fTontalis,«  fro7}i  the  external  two-thirds  of  the  superior  curved  line 

of  the  occipital  bone  and  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal ;  also  from  the 

pyramidalis  nasi,  corrugator  supercilii,  and  orbicularis  palpebrarum  fibres, — 

into  an  aponeurosis  or  "galea  capitis,"  which  covers  the  vertex  of  the  skull. 

Action,  chiefly  as  a  muscle  of  facial  expression.    Nerves,  facial,  supraorbital, 

small  occipital. 
AttoUens  Aurem,  from  the  occipito-frontalis  aponeurosis, — into  the  pinna  of 

the  ear  superiorly.    Action,  to  raise  the  pinna.    Nerve,  small  occipital  branch 

of  the  cervical  plexus. 
Attrahens  Aurem,  from  the  lateral  cranial  aponeurosis, — into  the  helix  of  the 

ear  anteriorly.     Action,  to  draw  the  pinna  forwards.     Nerves,  facial,  and 

auriculo  temporal  branch  of  the  inferior  maxillary. 
Retrahens  Aurem,  from  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal  bone, — into  the 

concha.     Action,  to  retract  the  pinna.     Nerve,  facial. 
Orbicularis  Palpebrarum,  y>'c?w  the  internal  angular  process  of  the  frontal  bone, 

the  nasal  process  of  the  superior  maxillary,  and  the  borders  of  the  tendo 

oculi, — thto  the  skin  of  the  eyelids,  forehead,  temple,  and  cheek,  blending 

with  the  occipito-frontalis  and  the  corrugator  supercilii.    Action,  to  close  the 

eyelids.     Nerve,  facial. 
Corrugator  Supercilii,  froDi  the  inner  end  of  the  superciliary  ridge  of  the 

frontal  bone, — into  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum.     Action,  to  draw  eyebrow 

downwards  and  inwards.     Nerve,  facial. 
Tensor  Tarsi  (Homer's  \a\x%Q\€),  from  the  crest  of  the  lachrymal  bone, — into 

the  tarsal  cartilages  by  two  slips.     Action,  to  compress  the  puncta  lachry- 

malia  against  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and  to  compress  the  lachrymal  sac. 

N'erve,  facial. 
Levator  Palpebrae  Swpexioxis,  from  the  lesser  wing  of  the  sphenoid, — into  the 

upper  tarsal  cartilage.     Action,  to  lift  the  upper  lid.     Nerve,  3d  cranial,  or 

motor  oculi. 
Rectus  Superior,  from  the  upper  margin  of  the  optic  foramen  and  the  sheath 

of  the  optic  nerve, — into  the  sclerotic  coat.     Action,  to  rotate  the  eyeball 

upwards.     Nerve,  3d  cranial. 
Rectus  Inferior,  from  the  ligament  of  Zinn, — into  the  sclerotic  coat.     Action, 

rotates  the  eyeball  downwards.     Nerve,  3d  cranial. 
Rectus  Intemus,  froju  the  ligament  of  Zinn, — into  the  sclerotic  coat.     Action, 

rotates  the  eyeball  inwards.     Nerve,  3d  cranial. 


MUSCLES    OF   THE    HEAD. 


69 


Rectus  Extemus,  by  2  heads,  the  upper  from  the  outer  margin  of  the  optic 
foramen,  the  lower  from  the  ligament  of  Zinn  and  a  bony  process  at  lower 
margin  of  the  sphenoidal  fissure, — intc  the  sclerotic  coat.  Action^  to  rotate 
the  eyetiall  outwards.     Nerve,  6th  cranial,  or  abducens. 

Between  the  2  heads  of  the  external  rectus  pass  the  3d,  nasal  branch  of  the 
5th,  and  the  6th  cranial  nerves,  and  the  ophthalmic  vein. 

Obliquus  Suj)erior,  from  about  a  line  above  the  inner  margin  of  the  optic 
foramen,  its  tendon  passing  through  a  "  pulley "  near  the  internal  angular 
process  of  the  frontal  bone  and  thence  beneath  the  rectus  superior, — into 
the  sclerotic  coat  at  right  angles  to  the  insertion  of  the  rectus  superior. 
Action,  to  rotate  the  eyeball  on  its  antero-posterior  axis.  Nerve,  4th  cranial, 
or  patheticus. 

Obliquus  Inferior, /re-;/;  the  orbital  plate  of  the  superior  maxillary, — into  the 
sclerotic  coat  below  the  insertion  of  the  external  rectus  and  at  right  angles 
thereto.  Action,  to  rotate  the  eye  on  its  antero-posterior  axis.  Nerve,  3d 
cranial. 

Pyramidalis  Nasi,'^  from  the  occipito-frontalis, — into  the  compressor  naris. 
Action,  to  depress  the  eyebrow.     Nerve,  facial. 

Levi|tor  Labii  Superioris  Alseque  Nasi,^  from  the  nasal  process  of  the 
superior  maxillary  bone, — hito  the  cartilage  of  the  ala  of  the  nose  and  into 
the  upper  lip.  Action,  to  elevate  the  upper  lip,  and  dilate  the  nostril. 
Nerve,  facial. 

Dilator  Naris  Anterior, /rd?w  the  cartilage  of  the  ala, — into  the  border  of  its 
integument.     Action,  to  dilate  the  nostril.     Nerve,  facial. 


Dilator  Naris  Posterior, /r(?/;z  the  nasal 
notch  of  the  superior  maxillary  and 
the  sesamoid  cartilages, — into  the  in- 
tegument at  the  margin  of  the  nostril. 
Action,  to  dilate  the  nostril.  Nerve^ 
facial. 

Compressor  Naris,^  from  the  superior 
maxillary  above  the  incisive  fossa, — 
into  the  fibro-cartilage  of  the  nose, 
being  continuous  with  its  fellow  and 
the  pyramidalis  nasi  aponeurosis.  Ac- 
tion, to  dilate  the  nostril.    Nerve,  facial. 

Compressor  Narium  Minor,  from  the 
alar  cartilage, — into  the  skin  at  the 
end  of  the  nose.  Action,  to  dilate  the 
nostril.     Nerve^  facial. 


Fig.  37. 


70  ANATOMY. 

Depressor  Alae  Nasi,  from  the  incisive  fossa  of  the  superior  maxillary, — mtc 
the  septum  and  ala  of  the  nose.  Action,  to  contract  the  nostril.  Nerve, 
facial. 

Levator  Labii  Superions,//rfw  the  lower  margin  of  the  oxhMy^— into  the 
upper  lip.     Action,  to  elevate  the  lip.     Nerve,  facial. 

Levator  Anguli  Ot\s,o  from  the  canine  fossa  of  the  superior  maxillary, — into 
the  angle  of  the  mouth.     Actioti,  as  named.     Nerve,  facial. 

Zygomaticus  Major/^  fro77i  the  malar  bone, — into  the  angle  of  the  mouth. 
Action,  to  raise  the  lip  outwards.     Nerve,  facial. 

Zygomaticus  Minor,^  from  the  malar  bone  anteriorly, — into  the  angle  of  the 
mouth,  blending  with  the  levator  labii  superioris.  Action,  to  raise  the  lip 
outwards.     Nerve,  facial. 

Levator  Labii  Inferioris'«  (Levator  Menti),/r^w  the  incisive  fossa  of  the  in- 
ferior maxillary  bone, — into  the  integument  of  the  lower  lip.  Action,  as 
named.     Nerve,  facial.  . 

Depressor  Labii  Inferioris^  (Quadratus  Menti),yr^z;z  the  external  oblique  line 
of  the  inferior  maxillary  bone, — into  the  lower  lip.  Action,  as  named. 
Nerve,  facial. 

Depressor  Anguli  Oris«  (Triangularis  Menti),/;w;/  the  external  oblique'^line 
of  the  inferior  maxillary, — into  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Action,  as  named. 
Nerve,  facial. 

Orbicularis  Oris,-^  by  accessory  fibres  (accessorii  orbicularis  superioris  and  in- 
ferioris,  and  naso-labialis)yr^/;^  the  nasal  septum  and  the  superior  and  in- 
ferior maxillary  borders, — into  the  buccinator  and  other  adjacent  muscles, 
forming  the  sphincter  of  the  mouth.  Action,  to  close  the  mouth.  Nerve, 
facial. 

Buccinator,/  from  the  posterior  alveolar  processes  of  both  the  maxillary 
bones  and  the  ptery go-maxillary  ligament, — into  the  orbicularis  oris.  Ac- 
tion, to  compress  the  cheeks.  Nerves,  facial,  and  the  buccal  branch  of  the 
inferior  maxillary. 

Risorius,  from  the  fascia  over  the  masseter  muscle, — itito  the  angle  of  the 
mouth.     Action,  the  laughing  muscle.     Nerve,  facial. 

Masseter,2  froi7i  the  anterior  two-thirds  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  zygoma 
and  the  malar  process  of  the  superior  maxillary, — into  the  angle,  ramus,  and 
coronoid  process  of  the  lower  jaw.  Action,  to  raise  the  back  part  of  the 
lower  jaw  ;  a  muscle  of  mastication.     Nerve,  inferior  maxillary. 

Temporal,  from  the  temporal  fossa  and  temporal  fascia, — into  the  coronoid 
process  of  the  inferior  maxillary.  Action,  to  bring  the  incisor  teeth  together; 
the  biting  muscle.     Nerve,  inferior  maxillary. 


MUSCLES    OF   THE   EAR    AND    NECK.  71 

Internal  Pterygoidj  from  the  pterygoid  fossa  of  the  sphenoid  bone,  and  the 
tuberosity  of  the  palate, — in/o  the  angle  and  inner  surface  of  the  ramus  of 
the  jaw,  as  high  as  the  dental  foramen.  Action,  raises  and  draws  for- 
ward the  lower  jaw ;  a  triturating  muscle  of  mastication.  Nerve,  inferior 
maxillary. 

External  Pterygoid,  by  2  heads,  the  upper,  from  the  pterygoid  ridge  on  the 
greater  wing  of  the  sphenoid,  the  lower  from  the  external  pterygoid  plate, 
and  the  tuberosities  of  the  palate  and  superior  maxillary  bones, — into  a 
depression  in  front  of  the  condyle  of  the  inferior  maxillary,  and  the  inter- 
articular  fibro-cartilage.  Action,  to  draw  the  jaw  forwards;  a  triturating 
muscle  of  mastication.     Nerve,  inferior  maxillary. 

Between  the  two  heads  of  the  external  pterygoid  muscle  passes  the  internal 
maxillary  artery. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE   EAR. 

Tensor  Tympani,  from  the  under  surface  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  the  cartilaginous  Eustachian  tube,  and  its  own  osseous  canal, — 
into  the  handle  of  the  malleus.  Action,  to  draw  the  membrana  tympani 
tense.     Nerve,  branch  from  otic  ganglion. 

Laxator  Tympani  Major,  from  the  spinous  process  of  the  sphenoid  and  the 
cartilaginous  Eustachian  tube, — through  the  Glasserian  fissure  to  the  neck 
of  the  malleus  just  above  the  processus  gracilis.  Action,  to  relax  the  mem- 
brana tympani.     Nerve,  tympanic  branch  of  the  facial. 

Laxator  Tympani  Mx!\ox,from  the  back  of  the  external  meatus, — ^passes  be- 
tween the  layers  of  the  membrana  tympani  into  the  handle  of  the  malleus 
and  processus  brevis.  Action,  to  relax  the  membrana  tympani.  Considered 
a  ligament  by  many  anatomists  (the  lig.  mallei  posticum). 

Stapedius, /r^w  the  interior  of  the  pyramid, — through  the  orifice  at  its  apex 
into  the  neck  of  the  stapes.  Action,  to  depress  the  base  of  the  stapes. 
Nerve,  filament  from  the  facial. 

MUSCLES   OF  THE  NECK. 

Platysma  "^yoxdits,  from  the  clavicle,  the  acromion,  and  the  fascia  covering 
the  pectoral,  deltoid,  and  trapezius  muscles, — into  the  lower  jaw,  the  angle 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  face.  Action,  to  wrinkle  the 
skin,  and  depress  the  mouth.     Nerves,  facial  and  superficial  cervical. 

Sterno-cleido-mastoid,'^  by  two  heads  from  the  sternum  ^^^  and  the  clav- 
icle^' at  its  inner  third, — into  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal  bone, 
and  the  superior  curved  line  of  the  occipital.  Action,  to  depress  and 
rotate  the  head.  Nerves^  spinal  accessory,  and  branches  of  the  cervical 
plexus. 


72 


^^^^^  ^^ 


F^G.  38.  Between  the  sternal  and 

clavicular  origins  is  a 
fossa,  the  fonticulus 
gtdturis,  which  rises 
and  falls  during  la- 
bored breathing. 
Sterno-hyoid,  1*  from 
the  posterior  surface 
of  the  sternum  and 
the  sternal  end  of  the 
clavicle,  —  into  the 
body  of  the  hyoid 
bone.  Action,  to  de- 
press the  hyoid  bone. 
Nerve,  a  branch  from 
the  communicating 
loop  between  the  de- 
-^  scendens    and    com- 

municans  noni. 
Stemo-thyroid,'^/rt7/;z  the  posterior  surface  of  the  sternum  and  the  cartilage 
of  the  1st  rihy— into  the  oblique  line  on  the  ala  of  the  thyroid  cartilage. 
Action,  to  depress  the  larynx.     Nerve,  a  branch  from   the  communicating 
loop  between  the  descendens  and  communicans  noni. 
Thyro-hyoid,'^  from  the   oblique   line   on  the   thyroid    cartilage, — into   the 
body  and  greater  comu  of  the  hyoid  bone.     Action,  to  elevate  the  larynx. 
Nerve,  hypoglossal. 
Omo-hyoid,^'  '^  f-om  the  upper  border  of  the    scapula    and    the   transverse 
ligament, — into  the  body  of  the  hyoid  bone.     It  has  a  tendon  in  its  centre 
which  is  bound  down  to  the  cartilage  of  the  1st  rib  by  a  loop  of  the  deep 
cervical  fascia.     Action,  to  depress  the  hyoid  bone,  and  draw  it  backwards. 
Nerve,  branch  from  the  communicating  loop  between  the  descendens  and 
communicans  noni. 
Digastric,    by  2  bellies,  the  posterior  ane"^   from  the  digastric  groove  of  the 
mastoid  process  of  the  temporal  bone;  the  anterior^  from  a  fossa  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  inferior  maxillary,  near  its  symphysis, — into  a  central 
tendon'  which  perforates  the  stylo-hyoid  muscle,  and  is  bound  down  to  the 
body  of  the  hyoid  bone  by  an  aponeurotic  loop.     Action,  to  raise  the  hyoid 
bone  and  tongue.  Nerves,  facial,  and  mylo-hyoid  branch  of  the  inferior  dental. 
Stylo-hyoid,*  from,  the  styloid  process  of  the  temporal  bone  near  its  base, — 
into  the  body  of  the  hyoid  Iwne.     Action,  to  elevate  and  retract  the  hyoid 
bone.     Nerve,  facial.     This  muscle  is  perforated  by  the  digastric. 


MUSCLES   OF   THE   NECK.  73 

Mylo-hyoid,5  from  the  mylo-hyoid  ridge  of  the  lower  jaw, — into  the  body  of 
the  hyoid  bone  and  a  fibrous  raphe  in  the  median  line  running  from  the  hyoid 
bone  to  the  chin.  Action^  elevates  the  hyoid  bone  and  draws  it  forwards, 
also  forms  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  Nerve,  mylo-hyoid  branch  of  inferior 
dental. 

Genio-hyoid,^  from  the  inferior  genial  tubercle  of  the  inferior  maxillary, — 
into  the  body  of  the  hyoid  borie.  Action,  same  as  the  mylo  hyoid.  Nerve, 
hypoglossal. 

Genio-hyo-glossus,  from  the  superior  genial  tubercle  of  the  inferior  maxillary, 
— into  the  body  of  the  hyoid  bone,  the  side  of  the  pharynx,  and  the  whole 
length  of  the  under  surface  of  the  tongue,  forming  a  fan-like  muscle.  Action, 
to  retract  and  protrude  the  tongue.     Nerve,  hypoglossal. 

Hyo-glossus^  (the  basio-kerato-chondro-glossus),  from  the  body  of  the  hyoid 
bone,  its  lesser  cornu,  and  the  whole  length  of  its  greater  cornu, — into  the 
side  of  the  tongue.  Action,  to  draw  down  the  side  of  the  tongue.  Nerve, 
hypoglossal. 

Stylo-glossus,^  from  the  styloid  process  and  the  stylo-maxillary  ligament, — 
into  the  side  of  the  tongue  and  the  hyo-glossus  muscle.  Action,  to  elevate 
and  retract  the  tongue.     Nerve,  hypoglossal. 

Lingualis,  lies  between  the  hyo-glossus  and  the  genio-hyo-glossus,  from  the 
base  to  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  along  its  under  surface ;  some  of  its  fibres  being 
attached  to  the  hyoid  bone.  Action,  to  elevate  the  centre  of  the  tongue. 
Nerve,  chorda  tympani. 

Inferior  Constrictor,  from  the  sides  of  the  cricoid  and  thyroid  cartilages, — 
into  the  fibrous  raphe  of  the  pharynx.  Action,  to  contract  the  pharyngeal 
calibre.  Nerves,  glosso-pharyngeal,  pharyngeal  plexus,  and  external  laryn- 
geal. 

Middle  Constrictor,  from  the  cornua  of  the  hyoid  bone  and  the  stylo-hyoid 
ligament, — into  the  pharyngeal  raph6.  Action,  to  constrict  the  pharynx. 
Nerves,  glosso-pharyngeal,  pharyngeal  plexus. 

Superior  Constrictor,  from  the  lower  third  of  the  margin  of  the  internal 
pterygoid  plate  and  its  hamular  process,  the  contiguous  part  of  the  palate 
bone,  the  tendon  of  the  tensor  palati,  the  pterygo-maxillary  ligament,  part 
of  the  alveolar  process  of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  side  of  the  tongue, — into 
the  pharyngeal  raph6  and  the  pharyngeal  spine  of  the  occipital  bone. 
Action,  to  constrict  the  pharynx.  Nerves,  glosso-pharyngeal,  pharyngeal 
plexus. 

Stylo- phsuyngeus,'**  from  the  inner  side  of  the  base  of  the  styloid  process, — 
into  the  constrictor  and  palato-pharyngeus  muscles,  and  the  thyroid  car- 
7 


74  ANATOMY. 

tilage.     Action,  to  elevate  the  pharynx.     Nerves,  glossopharyngeal,  pharyn- 
geal plexus.    The  former  nerve  crosses  this  muscle  in  passing  to  the  tongue. 

Levator  Palati,  front  the  under  surface  of  the  apex  of  the  petrous  portion  of 
the  temporal  bone  and  from  the  Eustachian  tube, — into  the  posterior  surface 
of  the  soft  palate.  Action,  to  elevate  the  soft  palate.  Nerve,  facial,  through 
the  Vidian  and  petrosal. 

Tensor  Palati,  from  the  scaphoid  fossa  of  the  sphenoid  bone  and  the  Eusta- 
chian tube, — reflected  around  the  hamular  process, — into  the  anterior  surface 
of  the  soft  palate,  and  the  horizontal  portion  of  the  palate  bone.  Action,  to 
tense  the  palate.     Nerve,  a  branch  from  the  otic  ganglion. 

Azygos  Uvulae,  from  the  posterior  nasal  spine  of  the  palate  bone,  and  from 
the  soft  palate, — into  the  uvula.  Action,  possibly  to  raise  the  uvula.  Nerve, 
facial,  through  the  Vidian  and  petrosal.  This  muscle  is  wrongly  named,  as 
it  is  double. 

Palato-glossus  (anterior  pillar  of  the  fauces),  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
soft  palate  laterally, — into  the  side  and  dorsum  of  the  tongue.  Action,  con- 
strictor isthmi  faucium.     Nen<es,  palatine  branches  of  Meckel's  ganglion. 

Palato-pharjnigeus  (posterior  pillar  of  the  fauces),  from  the  soft  palate, — into 
the  side  of  the  pharynx  and  the  posterior  border  of  the  thyroid  cartilage, 
having  joined  the  stylo-pharyngeus.  Action,  to  close  the  posterior  nares. 
Nerves,  palatine  branches  from  Meckel's  ganglion. 

Rectus  Capitis  Anti^cus  Major,  from  the  anterior  tubercles  of  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  3d,  4th,  5th,  and  6th  cervical  vertebrae  by  4  slips, — into  the 
basilar  processes  of  the  occipital  bone.  Action,  to  flex  the  head.  Nerves, 
sub-occipital  and  deep  branches  of  cervical  plexus.  This  muscle  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  scalenus  anticus. 

Rectus  Capitis  Anti^cus  Minor,  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  lateral  mass 
of  the  atlas,  and  the  root  of  its  transverse  process, — into  the  basilar  process 
of  the  occipital  bone.  Action,  to  flex  the  head.  Nerves,  sub-occipital  and 
deep  branches  of  the  cervical  plexus. 

Rectus  Lateralis, /ro;«  the  upper  surface  of  the  transverse  process  of  the  atlas, 
— into  the  jugular  process  of  the  occipital  bone.  Action,  to  draw  the  head 
laterally.     Nerve,  sub-occipital. 

Longus  Colli,  3  portions, — the  superior  oblique,  from  the  anterior  tubercles  of 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th  cervical  vertebrae,  into  a 
tubercle  on  the  anterior  arch  of  the  atlas: — inferior  oblique,  from  the  bodies 
of  the  first  2  or  3  dorsal  vertebrae,  into  the  transverse  processes  of  the  5th 
and  6th  cervical : — vertical  portion  from  the  bodies  of  the  lower  3  cervical 
and  upper  3  dorsal  vertebrae,  to  the  bodies  of  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  cervical. 


MUSCLES    OF   THE   LARYNX    AND    EPIGLOTTIS.  76 

Action,  to  flex  the  cervical  vertebrae  and  slightly  to  rotate  them.  Nerves^ 
branches  from  the  lower  cervical. 

Scalenus  Pi.n\\^Q,yx&i^^  from  a  tubercle  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  1st  rib, — 
into  the  transverse  processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  from  the  3d  to  the  6th 
inclusive.  Action,  to  flex  the  neck  laterally,  or  to  raise  the  1st  rib.  Nerves^ 
branches  from  the  lower  cervical.     (See  Fig.  38.) 

Scalenus  Medius,^^  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  ist  rib,  behind  the  sub- 
clavian groove, — into  the  transverse  processes  of  the  lower  6  cervical 
vertebrae.  Action,  same  as  scalenus  anticus.  Nerves ^  branches  from  the 
lower  cervical. 

Scalenus  Posti'cus,'^^  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  2d  rib, — into  the  posterior 
tubercles  on  the  transverse  processes  of  the  lower  2  or  3  cervical  vertebrae. 
Action,  to  flex  the  neck  laterally,  or  to  elevate  the  2d  rib.  Nerves,  branches 
from  lower  cervical. 

MUSCLES   OF  THE   LARYNX  AND   EPIGLOTTIS. 

Crico-thyroid, /a-o/w  the  front  and  side  of  the  cricoid  cartilage, — into  the  lower 
and  inner  borders  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Action,  to  elongate  and  make 
tense  the  vocal  chords.     Nerve,  superior  laryngeal. 

Crico-arytenoideus  Posticus,  fi-om  the  cricoid  cartilage  posteriorly, — into  the 
outer  angle  of  the  base  of  the  arytenoid  cartilage.  Action,  to  rotate  the 
arytenoid  cartilages  outwards  and  open  the  glottis,  while  keeping  the  vocal 
chords  tense.     Nerve,  recurrent  laryngeal. 

Crico-arytenoideus  Lateralis,  from  the  upper  border  of  the  cricoid  cartilage 
laterally, — into  the  outer  angle  of  the  base  of  the  aiytenoid  cartilage. 
Action,  to  rotate  the  arytenoid  cartilages  inwards  and  close  the  glottis. 
Nerve,  recurrent  laryngeal. 

Thyro-arytenoideuSjyVtJzw  the  receding  angle  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  and  the 
crico-thyroid  membrane, — into  the  base  and  anterior  surface  of  the  arytenoid 
cartilage.  Action,  to  shorten  and  relax  the  vocal  chords  by  approximating 
the  cartilages.     Nerve,  recurrent  laryngeal. 

Arytenoideus,  from  the  posterior  surface  and  outer  border  of  one  arytenoid 
cartilage, — into  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  opposite  cartilage,  filling  up 
the  posterior  concave  surface  of  these  cartilages.  Action,  by  approximating 
the  arytenoids,  to  close  the  back  part  of  the  glottis.  Nerves,  superior  and 
recurrent  laryngeal. 

Thyro-epiglottideus, /r^w  the  inner  surface  of  the  thyroid  cartilage, — into\\-\^ 
margin  of  the  epiglottis  and  the  aryteno-epiglottidean  fold.  Action^  a  de- 
pressor of  the  epiglottis.     Nerve,  recurrent  laryngeal. 


76  ANATOMY. 

Aryteno-epiglottideus  Superior,  from  the  apex  of  the  arytenoid  cartilage, 

into  the  aryteno-epiglottidean  folds.  Action,  to  constrict  the  superior  laryn- 
geal aperture.     Nerve,  recurrent  laryngeal. 

Aryteno-epiglottideus  Inferior,  from  the  arytenoid  cartilage  anteriorly, — into 
the  sacculus  laryngis  and  the  margin  of  the  epiglottis.  Action,  to  compress 
the  sacculus  laryngis.     Nerve,  recurrent  laryngeal. 

MUSCLES   OF   THE   BACK. 
First  layer  (2) — Trapezius.     Latissimus  Dorsi. 

Second  layer  (3) — Levator  Anguli  Scapulce.    Rhomboidetis  Major  and  Minor. 
Third  layer  (3) — Serratus  Posticus  Superior.     Serratus  Posticus  Inferior. 

Splenius  Capitis  et  Colli. 
Fourth  layer  (11) — in  4  sets,  viz. — 

Lumbar  (i) — Erector  Spince. 
External  (3).  Middle  (3).  Internal  (4). 

Sacro  lumbalis.  Longissif7ius  Dorsi.  Spinalis  Dorsi. 

Musculus  Acressorius  Transversalis  Colli.  Spinalis  Colli. 

ad  Sacro-lumbalem,  Trachelo-mastoid.  Biventer  Cervicis. 

Cervicalis  Ascendens.  Complexus. 

Fifth  layer  (12) — 6  having  the  word  spinal  in  them,  viz. — 
Semi-spinalis  Dorsi.  Inter-transversales. 

Semi-spinalis  Colli.  Rectus  Capitis  Posticus  Major. 

Multifidus  Spince.  Rectus  Capitis  Posticus  Minor. 

Rotatores  Spince.  Obliquus  Capitis  Superior. 

Supra -spinales.  ■  Obliquus  Capitis  Inferior. 

Inter- spina les.  Extensor  Coccygis. 

Trapezius,^  from  the  inner  third  of  the  superior  curved  line  of  the  occipital 
bone,  the  ligamentum  nuchae,^  the  spinous  processes  of  the  last  cervical  and 
all  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  the  supra-spinous  ligament, — into  the  outer  third 
of  the  posterior  border  of  the  clavicle,  the  superior  margin  of  the  acromion 
process,  the  whole  length  of  the  superior  border  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula,^ 
and  a  tubercle  at  its  inner  extremity.  Action,  to  draw  the  head  backwards. 
Nerves,  spinal  accessory,  cervical  plexus. 
Ligamentum  NucH^,/r^w  the  external  occipital  protuberance, — to  the  spines 

of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  from  the  2d  to  the  7th  inclusive. 
Latissimus  Dorsi,*  by  an  aponeurosis  from  the  spines  of  the  6  lower  dorsal 
and  the  lumbar  and  sacral  vertebrae,  the  supra-spinous  ligament,  the  crest 
of  the  ilium,  and  the  3  or  4  lower  ribs, — into  the  bicipital  groove  of  the 
humerus.  Action,  the  c7irsor  ani  muscle,  drawing  the  arm  downwards 
and  backwards ;  or  raising  the  lower  ribs  and  drawing  the  trunk  forwards. 
Nerves,  the  subscapular. 


MUSCLES    OF   THE    BACK. 


77 


Levator  Anguli  Scapulae,'o  ]^y  ^  slips  from  the  transverse  processes  of  3  or 
4  upper  cervical  vertebrae, — m^o  the  posterior  border  of  the  scapula.  Action, 
as  rxamed.     Nerves,  branches  from  the  5th  cervical  and  the  cervical  plexus. 


Fig.  39. 


Rhomboideus  yiinov,^^  from  the  ligamentum  nuchse  and  spines  of  the  7th 
cervical  and  1st  dorsal  vertebrae, — into  the  smooth  surface  at  the  root  of  the 
spine  of  the  scapula.  Action,  to  draw  the  scapula  backwards  and  upwards. 
Nerve,  5th  cervical. 

Rhomboideus  yi^yox^'''  from  the  spines  of  the  4  or  5  upper  dorsal  vertebrae 
and  the  supra-spinous  ligament, — into  the  scapula  at  the  root  of  its  spine 
and  inferior  angle,  by  a  tendinous  arch.  Action,  to  draw  the  scapula  up- 
wards and  backwards.     Nerve,  5lh  cervical. 


78  ANATOMY. 

Serratus  Posti^'cus  Superior,  from  the  ligamentum  nuchoe,  and  spines  of  the 
7lh  cervical  and  2  or  3  upper  dorsal  vertebrae, — in/o  the  upper  borders  of 
the  2d,  3d,  4th,  and  5th  ribs,  by  4  digitations.  Action,  to  raise  ribs  in  in- 
spiration.    Nerves,  external  posterior  branches  of  the  cervical  nerves. 

Serratus  Posti^cus  Inferior,^^  fro7?i  the  spines  of  the  last  2  dorsal  and  first  3 
lumbar  vertebrae, — into  the  lower  borders  of  the  4  lower  ribs,  by  4  digi- 
tations. Action,  to  depress  these  ribs  in  expiration.  Nerves,  external 
branches  of  the  dorsal  nerves. 

Splenius  Capitis  '^  et  QdWi^^  from  the  lower  half  of  the  ligamentum  nuchse, 
the  last  cervical  and  6  upper  dorsal  spines,  and  the  supra-spinous  ligament, 
— the  S.  capitis  into  the  mastoid  process  and  a  rough  surface  below  the  supe- 
rior curved  line  of  the  occipital  bone, — the  S.  colli  mio  the  transverse  processes 
of  the  3  or  4  upper  cervical  vertebrae.  Action,  to  draw  the  head  backwards 
and  the  neck  erect.    Nerves,  external  posterior  branches  of  the  cervical  nerves. 

Erector  Spindt^  from  the  sacro-iliac  groove,  and  by  the  lumbo-sacral  tendon 
from  the  sacral  lumbar  and  3  lower  dorsal  spines,  the  iliac  crest,  and  the 
posterior  eminences  of  the  sacrum, — divides  into  the  sacro-lumbalis"  and 
longissimus  dorsi'  muscles.  Action,  to  erect  the  spine  and  bend  the  trunk 
backwards.     N'erves,  external  posterior  branches  of  the  lumbar  nerves. 

Sacro-lumbalis,'^  from  the  erector  spinae, — into  the  angles  of  the  6  lower 
ribs.     Action,  as  the  erector  spinae.     Nerves,  branches  of  the  dorsal. 

Musculus  Accessorius  ad  Sacro-lumbalem,'^  from  the  angles  of  6  lower 
ribs, — into  the  angles  of  6  upper  ribs.  Action,  as  the  erector  spinae.  Nerves, 
branches  of  the  dorsal. 

Cervicalis  Ascendens,^  from  the  angles  of  4  or  5  upper  ribs, — iyito  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  cervical  vertebrae.  Action, 
to  keep  the  neck  erect.     Nerves,  branches  of  the  cervical. 

Longissimus  Dorsi,'  from  the  erector  spinae, — into  the  transverse  and 
articular  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  into  the  tips  of  the  transverse 
processes  of  all  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  into  from  7  to  li  ribs  between 
iheir  tubercles  and  angles.  Action^  as  the  erector  spinae.  Nerves,  branches 
of  the  lumbar  and  dorsal  nerves. 

Transversalis  Colli,*  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the  3d,  4th,  5th,  and 
6th  dorsal  vertebrae, — into  the  transverse  processes  of  the  5  lower  cervical.^ 
Action,  to  keep  the  neck  erect.     Nerves,  cervical  branches. 

Trachelo-mastoid,^/r^»/  the  transverse  processes  of  the  3d,  4th,  5th,  and  6th 
dorsal  vertebrae,  and  the  articular  processes  of  the  3  or  4  lower  cervical, — 
into  the  posterior  margin  of  the  mastoid  process.  Action,  to  steady  the 
head.     Nerves,  branches  of  the  cervical. 


MUSCLKS    OF    THE    BACK. 


79 


Spinalis  Dorsi,  from  the  last  2  dorsal  and 
fust  2  lumbar  spines, — into  all  the  remaining 
dorsal  spines.  Action^  to  erect  the  spinal 
column.     Nerves^  branches  of  the  dorsal. 

Spinalis  ZoVix^from  the  5th  and  6th  cervical 
spines,  sometimes  from  the  1st  and  2d 
dorsal, — into  the  spine  of  the  axis,  or  the 
3d  and  4th  cervical  spines.  Action,  to 
steady  the  neck.  Nerves,  l:)ranches  of  the 
cervical.  [This  muscle  is  frequently  ab- 
sent,] 

Biventer  Cervicis,  from  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  2  to  4  upper  dorsal  vertebrae, — 
into  the  superior  curved  line  of  the  occipi- 
tal bone.  [Is  but  a  portion  of  the  corn- 
plexus  muscle.] 

Complexus,^  by  7  tendons  fro7n  the  tips  of 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  7th  cervical 
and  3  upper  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  from  the 
articular  processes  of  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th 
cervical, — into  the  inner  depression  between 
the  curved  lines  of  the  occipital  bone.  Ac- 
tion, to  retract  and  rotate  the  head.  Nerves ^ 
suboccipital,  great  occipital,  and  branches 
of  the  cervical  nerves. 

Semispinals  Dorsi,^"  from  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae^  from 
about  the  Sth  to  the   nth, — into  the  last  2 

cervical  and  4  upper  dorsal   spines.     Action,  to  erect  the  spinal  column. 
Nerves,  branches  of  the  dorsal  nerves. 

Semlspinalis  Colli,'^  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the  4  upper  dorsal 
vertebrae,  and  the  articular  processes  of  the  4  lower  cervical, — into  the  2d, 
3d,  4th,  and  5th  cervical  spines.  Action,  to  erect  the  spinal  column.  Nerves^ 
branches  of  the  cervical. 

Multifidus  Spinae,is  from  the  back  of  the  sacrum,  posterior  superior  spine  of 
the  ilium,  posterior  sacro-iliac  ligaments,  articular  processes  of  lumbar  and 
cervical  vertebrae,  and  the  transverse  processes  of  the  dorsal, — into  the 
laminae  and  spines  of  the  next  4  vertebrae  above.  Action,  to  erect  and  rotate 
the  spinal  column.     Nerves,  posterior  spinal  branches. 


80  ANATOMY. 

Rotatores  Spinae  (ii),  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebnc, 
from  the  2d  to  the  1 2th  inclusive, — each  into  the  lamina  of  the  next  dorsal 
vertebrse  above.  Adion,  to  rotate  the  spinal  column.  Nerves,  branches  of 
the  dorsal. 

Supra-spinales,  lie  on  the  spinous  processes  in  the  cervical  region.  Nerves, 
branches  of  the  cervical. 

Inter-spinales,  placed  in  pairs  between  the  spines  of  contiguous  vertebrae,  6 
pairs  in  the  cervical  region,  3  in  the  dorsal,  4,  sometimes  6,  in  the  lumbar. 
Nerves,  posterior  spinal  branches. 

Inter-transversales,i8  placed  between  the  transverse  processes  of  contigu- 
ous vertebra,  7  in  the  cervical  region,  12  in  the  dorsal,  and  4  in  the  lumbar. 
Nerves,  posterior  spinal  branches. 

Rectus  Capitis  Posti^cus  Major,^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^m^  of  the  axis, — into  the  infe- 
rior curved  line  of  the  occipital  bone  and  the  surface  below.  Action,  to 
rotate  the  head.     Nerves,  sub-  and  great  occipital. 

Rectus  Capitis  Posti'cus  Minor,^"'*  from  the  tubercle  on  the  posterior  arch 
of  the  atlas, — into  a  rough  surface  between  the  foramen  magnum  and  the 
inferior  curved  line  of  the  occipital  bone.  Action,  to  draw  the  head  back- 
wards.    Nerves,  sub-  and  great  occipital. 

Obliquus  Capitis  Inferior,^^  from  the  spinous  process  of  the  axis, — almost 
horizontally  to  the  transverse  process  of  the  atlas.  Action,  to  rotate  the 
atlas  and  cranium.     Nerves,  sub-  and  great  occipital. 

Obliquus  Capitis  Superior,^*  from  the  transverse  process  of  the  atlas; — 
upwards  and  inwards  into  the  occipital  bone  between  the  curved  lines. 
Action,  draws  the  head  backwards.     Nerves,  sub-  and  great  occipital. 

Extensor  Coccygis,  from  the  last  bone  of  the  sacrum  or  first  of  the  coccyx, — 
into  the  lower  part  of  the  coccyx,  posteriorly.  Action,  as  named.  Nerves, 
posterior  sacral  branches. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE   ABDOMEN. 

External  Oblique,!^  from  8  lower  ribs  by  8  fleshy  digitations, — into  the  an- 
terior half  of  the  outer  lip  of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  by  a  broad  aponeu- 
rosis,^' into  the  ensiform  cartilage,  linea  alba,  symphysis,  and  spine  of  the 
pubes,  and  the  pectineal  line.  Its  aponeurosis  is  continuous  with  that  of  the 
pectoralis  major  above,  and  below  it  forms  Poupart's  '*  and  Gimbernat's 
ligaments,  and  by  the  separation  of  its  fibres,  the  external  abdominal  ring.^5 
Action,  to  compress  the  viscera,  and  flex  the  thorax  of  the  pelvis,  and  vice 
versd.     N'erves,  lower  intercostal,  ilio-hypogastric,  and  ilio-inguinal. 

Internal  Oblique,'^  from  the  lumbar  fascia,  the  anterior  two-thirds  of  the 
middle  lip  of  the  crest  of  ihe  ilium,  and  the  outer  half  of  Poupart's  liga- 


MUSCLES    OF   THE   ABDOMEN. 


81 


ment, — into  the  cartilages  of  4  lower  ribs;  by  its  aponeurosis  into  the  linea 
alba;  and  leaving  an  arched  border'-^  over  the  spermatic  cord,  by  the  con- 
joined tendon'9  with  the  transversalis  into  the  pubic  crest  and  the  pectineal 
line.  Its  aponeurosis  splits  at  the  rectus  abdominis  for  its  upper  three- fourths, 
one  layer  passing  in  front,  the  other  behind  that  muscle,  to  unite  again  at  the 
linea  alba ;  for  its  lower  one-fourth  it  passes  in  front  of  the  rectus.  Action 
and  Nerves,  same  as  the  external  oblique. 

Fig.  41. 


Transversalis,  from  the  outer  one-third  of  Poupart's  ligament,  the  anterior 
two-thirds  of  the  inner  lip  of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  the  cartilages  of  6  lower 
ribs,  and  an  aponeurosis  from  the  spines  and  transverse  processes  of  the 
lumbar  vertebrae, — by  its  aponeurosis  into  the  linea  alba,  and  by  the  con- 
joined tendon^'  with  the  internal  oblique,  into  the  pubic  crest  and  the 
pectineal  line.  Its  aponeurosis  passes  behind  the  rectus  abdominis  for  its 
upper  three-fourths,  in  front  of  that  muscle  for  its  lower  one-fourth. 

F 


82  ANATOMY. 

Lumbar  Fascia,  or  vertebral  aponeurosis  of  the  transversaMs,  divides  into  3 
leaflets,  the  atiterior  and  yniddle  being  attached  to  the  apices  of  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebne,  the  posterior  leaflet  to  the  apices  of  their 
spines.  The  anterior  and  middle  leaflets  enclose  the  quadratus  lumborum 
muscle,  the  middle  and  posterior  enclose  the  erector  spinae. 

Rectus  Abdominis,^^  by  2  tendons  from  the  pubic  crest  and  the  ligaments 
covering  the  symphysis, — into  the  cartilages  of  the  5th,  6th,  and  7tli  ribs.  It 
lies  in  a  sheath  formed  by  the  aponeuroses  of  the  internal  oblique  and  trans- 
versalis  muscles  for  its  upper  three-fourths,  and  is  crossed  by  2  to  5  tendinous 
lines,  the  Linece  Transversce.  At  its  outer  border  is  a  similar  line  placed 
vertically,  the  Linea  Semilunaris,  formed  by  the  aponeurosis  of  the  internal 
oblique  at  its  point  of  division.  Action,  to  flex  the  thorax  on  the  pelvis  and 
vice  versa,  also  to  compress  the  abdominal  viscera.  Nerves,  same  as  the 
external  oblique. 

Pjo-amidalis,'^  lies  in  front  of  the  rectus,  but  in  the  same  sheath,  arises  from 
the  front  of  the  pubic  bone  and  the  anterior  pubic  ligament, — into  the  linea 
alba,  half-w^ay  to  the  umbilicus.  Action,  a  tensor  of  the  linea  alba.  A'^erves, 
same  as  the  external  oblique. 

Quadratus  Lumborum,^*  '^'k-  ^  from  the  ilio-lumbar  ligament,  adjacent  2  inches 
of  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  transverse  processes  of  the  lower  3  lumbar  ver- 
tebrae,— into  one-half  of  the  lower  border  of  the  last  rib,  and  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  last  3  lumbar  vertebrae.  Action,  to  flex  the  thorax  laterally 
on  the  pelvis  and  vice  versa.     Nerves,  anterior  branches  of  the  lumbar. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  THORAX. 

External  Intercostals  (11),  each  from  the  outer  lip  of  the  groove  in  the  in- 
ferior costal  border, — into  the  upper  border  of  the  next  rib  below,  directed 
obliquely  downwards  and  forwards.  Action,  to  raise  and  evert  the  ribs  in 
inspiration.     Nerves,  intercostal. 

Internal  Intercostals  (11),  each  from  the  inner  lip  of  the  groove  in  the  in- 
ferior costal  border, — into  the  upper  border  of  the  rib  below,  directed 
obliquely  downwards  and  backwards.  Action,  at  sides  of  thorax  to  depress 
the  ribs  in  expiration ;  anteriorly  they  raise  the  costal  cartilages.  Nerves, 
intercostals. 

Infra-costales  (10),  obliquely  fro77i  inner  surface  of  i  rib, — into  the  inner 
surface  of  the  i?t,  2d,  or  3d  rib  below.  Action,  muscles  of  inspiration. 
Nerves,  intercostal. 

Triangularis  Stemi,  from  the  inner  surface  of  the  ensiform  cartilage,  inner 
surfaces  of  costal  cartilages  of  3  or  4  lower  true  ribs,  and  lower  sides  of  the 


MUSCLES    OF   THE    PERINEUM. 


83 


Fig.  42. 


sternum, — into  the  lower  border  and  inner  surfaces  of  the  2d,  3d,  4th,  and 
5th  costal  cartilages.  AdioUy  to  draw  down  the  cartilages  in  expiration. 
Nerves,  intercostal. 

Levatores  Costarum,i'  J^'k-  *"  (12),  t.z.Q\xfrom  the  transverse  process  of  a  dorsal 
vertebra, — into  the  upper  surface  of  the  next  rib  below,  near  its  angle. 
Action,  to  raise  the  ribs.     Nerves,  intercostal. 

Diaphragm,  from  the  ensiform  cartilage,*  inner  surfaces  of  6  or  7  lower  ribs, 
ligamenta  arcuata,^  and  by  its  crura^  ^®  from  the  bodies  of  the  lumbar  ver- 
tebrae, from  the  2d  to 
the  4th  on  the  right 
side,  the  2d  and  3d  on 
the  left, — into  the  cen- 
tral or  cordiform  ten- 
don.2  3  Action,  the 
great  muscle  of  respi- 
ration and  expulsion. 
Nerve,  the  phrenic. 

Openings  of  the  Dia- 
phragm. The  Aortic}^ 
in  the  middle  line  pos- 
teriorly, and  behind 
the  diaphragm ;  trans- 
mits the  aorta,  vena 
azygos  major,  and  tho- 
racic duct,  occasionally 
the      left     sympathetic 

nerve.      The    CEsopha-  ^' 

geal,^'^  in  the  muscular  structure,  transmits  the  oesophagus  and  the  pneumo- 
gastric  nerves.  The  Opening  for  the  Vena  Cava^^  is  the  highest,  and  has  4 
tendinous  margins.  The  Right  Crus"^  transmits  the  sympathetic  and  greater 
and  lesser  splanchnic  nerves  of  that  side.  The  Left  Crus}^  the  greater  and 
lesser  splanchnic  nerves  of  the  left  side  and  the  vena  azygos  minor. 

Descent  of  the  Diaphragm.  Its  central  tendon  does  not  descend  during  in- 
spiration, being  connected  with  the  deep  cervical  fascia  by  the  fibrous 
pericardium. 


MUSCLES  OF  THE   PERINEUM. 

Sphincter  Ani,*  from  the  tip  of  the  coccyx  and  superficial  fascia, — into  the 
tendinous  centre  of  the  perineum.  Action,  to  close  the  anus.  Nerve ^ 
hemorrhoidal  branch  of  the  pudic. 


84 


Internal  Sphincter,  a  muscular  ring,  lialf  an  inch  broad,  about  an  inch  from 
the  margin  of  the  anus;  is  an  aggregation  of  the  involuntary  circular  fibres 
of  the  intestine. 

Fig.  43. 


Sphincter  Tertius  of  Hyrtl,  fro7n  the  sacrum,  encircling  the  rectum  about  4 

inches  above  the  anal  orifice.     [Demonstrated  by  Hyrtl,  Nelaton,  and  Vel- 

peau,  but  denied  by  most  anatomists.] 
Accelerator  Urinae,^  from  the  central  tendon  of  the  perineum  and  the  median 

raphe  in   front, — fibres   spread   over  the  bulb,  corpus  spongiosum,  corpus 

cavernosum,"  and  dorsal  vessels.     Action,  to  accelerate  the  flow  of  urine, 

and  erect  the  penis.     Nerve,  perineal  branch  of  pudic. 
Erector  Penis,'  f^om  the  inner  surface  of  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  the 

crus  penis,  and  pubic  ramus, — into  the  crus  penis  laterally  and  inferiorly. 

Action,  to  maintain  erection.     Nerve,  perineal. 
Transversus  Perinei,-''  from  the  ascending  ramus  of  the  ischium, — into  the 

central  tendon  of  the  perineum.     Action,  to  draw  tense  the  central  tendon. 

Nerve,  perineal. 
Levator  P^m,^from  the  body  and  ramus  of  the  pubes  posteriorly,  pelvic  fascia, 

and  the  spine  of  the  ischium, — into  the  tendinous  centre  of  the  perineum, 

sides  of  the  rectum  (and  vagina),  apex  of  the  coccyx,  and  a  fibrous  raph6 

extending  from  the  coccyx  to  the  anus.     Action,  to  support  the  lower  end  of 

the  rectum  and  vagina  and  the  bladder,  and  assist  in  forming  the  floor  of  the 

pelvis.     Nei-ves,  inferior  hemorrhoidal  and  4th  sacral. 
Compressor  Urethrae,  from  the  upper  part  of  the  ramus  of  the  pubes, — into 

its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  after  encircling  the  membranous  portion  of  the 

urethra.     Action^  stop-cock  muscle.     Nerve,  perineal. 


MUSCLES  OF  THE  SHOULDER   AND  ARM.  8$ 

CoccygCUSy^  from  the  spine  of  the  ischium  and  the  lesser  sacro-sciatic  liga- 
ment,— in/o  the  margin  of  the  coccyx  and  the  side  of  the  last  sacral  segment. 
Action,  to  support  the  coccyx,  and  close  the  outlet  of  the  pelvis  posteriorly. 
Nerve,  5th  sacral,  anterior  division. 

Sphincter  Vaginae  (in  the  female),  from  the  central  tendon  of  the  perineum, 
— into  the  corpora  cavernosa  and  body  of  the  clitoris.  Represents  the  accel- 
erator urina2  of  the  male. 

Erector  Clitoridis  (in  the  female),  replaces  the  erector  penis. 

MUSCLES   OF  THE   SHOULDER   AND   ARM. 

Pectoralis  Maiox,  from  the  sternal  one-half  of  the  clavicle,  by  an  aponeu- 
rosis from  the  front  of  the  sternum  as  low  as  the  6th  or  7th  rib,  the  cartilages 
of  all  the  true  ribs,  and  the  aponeurosis  of  the  external  oblique, — the  fibres 
converg€^  cross  and  are  inserted  by  a  flat  tendon  into  the  external  bicipital 
ridge  of  the  humerus,  having  crossed  the  bicipital  groove.  Action,  to  draw 
the  arm  forwards  and  downwards ;  also  to  elevate  the  ribs  in  forced  inspira- 
tion.    Nerves,  anterior  thoracic. 

Pectoralis  Minor,  from  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th  ribs,  and  the  intercostal  aponeu- 
rosis,— into  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula.  Action,  to  depress  the 
point  of  the  shoulder,  also  to  elevate  the  ribs  in  forced  inspiration.  NerveSy 
anterior  thoracic. 

Subclavius, /re/;/  the  cartilage  of  the  1st  rib, — into  the  under  surface  of  the 
clavicle,  in  a  groove  about  its  middle  3d.  Action,  to  draw  the  clavicle 
downwards.     Nerve,  a  branch  from  the  5th  and  6th  cervical. 

Serratus  Magnus,  by  9  digi cations /re w  the  8  upper  ribs  (the  2d  rib  having 
2)  and  from  the  intercostal  aponeurosis, — into  the  whole  length  of  the  inner 
margin  of  the  posterior  border  of  the  scapula.  Action,  to  elevate  the  ribs 
in  inspiration,  also  to  raise  the  point  of  the  shoulder.  In  lower  animals 
the  great  sling-muscle,  slinging  the  body  between  the  upper  extremities. 
Nerve,  posterior  thoracic. 

Deltoid,/re/«  the  outer  one-third  of  the  anterior  and  superior  surfaces  of  the 
clavicle,  the  outer  margin  and  upper  surface  of  the  acromion,  and  the  whole 
lower  border  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula, — into  a  prominence  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  shaft  of  the  humerus,  about  its  middle.  Action,  to  raise  the  arm. 
A'erve,  circumflex. 

Subscapularis, /'e/;/  the  inner  two-thirds  of  the  subscapular  fossa, — into  the 
lesser  tuberosity  of  the  humerus.  Action,  to  rotate  the  head  of  the  humerus 
inwards.     N'erves^  subscapular. 

Supra-spinatus, /rewz  the  inner  two-thirds  of  the  supra-spinous  fossa, — into 
the  upper  facet  of  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus.     Action,  to  sup- 
port the  shoulder-joint,  and  to  raise  the  arm.     Nerve,  supra-scapular. 
8 


86 


ANATOMY. 


Infra-spinatus,  from  the  inner  two-thirds  of  the  infra-spinous  fossa, — into 
the  middle  facet  on  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus.  Action,  to  rotate 
the  humerus  outwards.     Nerve,  supra-scapular. 

Teres  Minor,  from  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  axillary 
border  of  the  scapula, — into  the  lowest  facet  on  the  greater  tuberosity  of 
the  himierus,  and  the  bone  below.  Action,  to  rotate  the  humerus  outwards. 
Nerve,  circumflex. 

Teres  Major,  from  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula, — 
into  the  internal  bicipital  ridge  of  the  humerus.  Action,  to  assist  the  latis- 
simus  dorsi.     Nerve,  subscapular. 

Coraco-brachialis,"  yrt7w  the  apex  of  the  coracoid  process^  of  the  scapula. 


Fig.  44. 


— into  a  ridge  on  the  inner  side  of  the  shaft  of 
the  humerus,  about  its  middle.  Action,  elevates 
the  humerus  forwards  and  inwards.  A'erve,  mus- 
culo-cutaneous,  which  perforates  this  muscle. 

Biceps^^  (Biceps  Flexor  Cubiti).  Long  head^ 
from  the  upper  margin  of  the  glenoid  cavity, 
skort  head^'^  from  the  apex  of  the  coracoid 
process,*  in  common  with  the  coraco-brachi- 
alis, — into  the  back  of  the  tuberosity  of  the 
radius,  and  the  fascia  of  the  forearm.'^ 
Action,  to  flex  and  supinate  the  forearm,  and 
to  make  tense  its  fascia.  Nerve,  the  musculo- 
cutaneous. 

Brachialis  Anti'cus,^''  from  the  lower  half  of 
the  shaft  of  the  humerus  anteriorly  and  later- 
ally, embracing  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid,* — 
into  the  base  of  the  coronoid  process  of  the 
ulna.19  Action,  a  flexor  of  the  forearm. 
A^erves,  musculo-cutaneous  and  musculo-spiral. 

Triceps^s  (Triceps  Extensor  Cubiti),  by  three 
heads,  the  outer,  and  inner  from  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  shaft  of  the  humerus,  the  outer 
above,  the  inner  below  the  musculo-spiral 
groove;  the  middle  or  long  head  from  a  de- 
pression below  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula, 
— into  the  upper  end  of  the  olecranon  process 
of  the  ulna.  Action,  to  extend  the  forearm. 
Nerve,  musculo-spiral. 


MUSCLES    OF    Tilli    I'OREARM.  87 

Subanconeus,  from  the  humerus  above  the  olecranon  fossa, — into  the  poste- 
rior ligament  of  the  elbow-joint.  Action,  probably  a  tensor  of  the  ligament. 
Nerve,  musculo-spiral. 

MUSCLES   OF  THE   FOREARM. 

Muscles  of  the  forearm  (20),  arranged  in  groups  of  five  and  threes.    (Pancoast.) 
Anteriorly,  5  flexors,  2  pronators,  l  tensor  of  palmar  fascia : — 
Flexor  Carpi  Radialis.  Pronator  Radii  Teres. 

Flexor  Carpi  Ulnaris.  Pronator  Quadrattis. 

Flexor  Longus  Pollicis.  Palmar  is  Longiis. 

Flexor  Sublijnis  Digitoriim  Perforatus  Manis. 
Flexor  Profundus  Digitorum  Perforans  Manis. 
Posteriorly  (12),  in  4  sets  of  threes  : — 

Supinator  Longus.  Extensor  Indicis. 

Extensor  Carpi  Radialis  Longior.  Extensor  Communis  Digitorum. 

Extensor  Carpi  Radialis  Brevior.  Extensor  Minimi  Digiti. 

Extensor  Ossis  Metacaipi  Pollicis.  Extensor  Carpi  Ulnaris. 

Extensor  Primi  Internodii  Pollicis.  Anconeus. 

Extensor  Secundi  Intcrncdii  Pollicis.         Supinator  Brevis. 
Pronator  Radii  Teres,*  by  2  heads,  one  from  above  the  internal  condyle  of 
the  humerus,  the  common  tendon,  fascia,  and  the  intermuscular  septum ;  the 
other  from  the  inner  side  of  the  coronoid  process  of  the  uhia, — into  a  rough 
ridge  on  the  outer  side  of  the  shaft  of  the  radius,  about  its  middle.     Action, 
to  pronate  the  hand.     Nerve,  median,  which  passes  between  the  2  heads 
of  the  muscle. 
Flexor  Carpi  Radialis,5y;'i?w  the  internal  condyle  by  the  common  tendon,  the 
fascia,  and  intermuscular  septa, — into  the  base  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  ihe 
index  finger.     Action,  to  flex  the  wrist.     N'ei've,  median. 
Palmaris  \jOXi^\xs^  from  the  same  origin  as  the  flexor  carpi  radialis, — ijito  the 
annular  ligament  and  the  palmar  fascia.^     Action,  to  make  the  palmar  fascia 
tense.     Nerve,  median. 
Flexor   Carpi    Ulnaris,"  by  2  heads,  one  from  the  internal  condyle  by  the 
common   tendon,  the   other  from  the  inner  margin  of  the   olecranon,  the 
upper  two-thirds  of  the  posterior  border  of  the  ulna,  and  the  intermuscular 
septum, — into  the  pisiform  bone,  the  annular  ligament,  and  the  base  of- the 
5th  metacarpal  bone.     Action,  to  flex  the  wrist.     N'erve,  ulnar. 
Flexor  Sublimis  Digitorum   ( Perforatus ),t  by  3  heads,  one  from  the  inner 
condyle  by  the  common  tendon,  the  internal  lateral  ligament,  and  the  inter- 
muscular septum;  the  2d  from  the  inner  side  of  the  coronoid  process;  the 
3d  from  the  oblique  line  of  the  radius, — into  the  lateral  margins  of  the  second 


ANATOMY. 

phalanges  by  4  tendons  which  are  split  for  the  passage 
of  the  deep  flexor  tendons.  Action,  to  flex  the  second 
phalanges.     Nerve,  median. 

Flexor  Profundus  Digitorum  (Perforans),  from  the 
upper  two-thirds  of  the  shaft  of  the  ulna,  a  de- 
pression on  the  inner  side  of  the  coronoid  process, 
and  the  interosseous  membrane, — into  the  bases  of 
the  last  phalanges,  by  4  tendons  which  perforate 
the  tendons  of  the  superficial  flexor.  Action,  to 
flex  the  phalanges.  Nerves,  ulnar,  and  anterior 
interosseous. 

Flexor  Longus  PoUicis,  fi-om  the  upper  two-thirds 
of  the  shaft  of  the  radius,  and  the  interosseous 
membrane, — into  the  base  of  the  last  phalanx  of 
the  thumb,  which  it  flexes.  Nerve,  anterior  inter- 
osseous. 

Pronator  Quadratus,  from  the  oblique  line  on  the 
lower  one-fourlh  of  the  ulna,  and  the  internal  body 
of  the  ulna, — into  the  lower  one-fourth  of  the  ex- 
ternal border  of  the  shaft  of  the  radius.  Action,  to 
pronate  the  hand.     Nei've,  anterior  interosseous. 

Supinator  Longus,"  from  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
external  condyloid  ridge  on  the  humerus,  and  the 
intermuscular  septum, — into  the  base  of  the  styloid 
process  of  the  radius.  Action,  to  supinate  the  hand. 
Nerve,  musculo-spiral. 

Extensor  Carpi  Radialis  Longior,^  from  the  lower  one-third  of  the  external 
condyloid  ridge  on  the  humerus,  and  the  intermuscular  septum, — into  the 
base  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  index  finger,^  on  its  radial  side.  Action, 
to  extend  the  wrist.     Nerve,  musculo-spiral. 

Extensor  Carpi  Radialis  Brevior,/  from  the  external  condyle  by  the  common 
tendon,  the  external  lateral  ligament,  and  the  intermuscular  septa, — into  the 
radial  side  of  the  base  of  the  3d  metacarpal  bone.^  Action,  to  extend  the 
wrist.     Nerve,  posterior  interosseous. 

Extensor  Communis  Digitorum j-^  from  the  external  condyle  by  the  common 
tendon,  the  deep  fascia,  and  the  intermuscular  septa, — into  the  2d  and  3d 
phalanges  of  all  the  fingers,  by  3  tendons,  one  of  which  divides  into  two. 
Action,  to  extend  the  fingers.     Nerve,  posterior  interosseous. 


MUSCLES   OF   THE    FOREARM. 


Fig.  46. 


Extensor  Minimi  "Digitifi  from  the  common  tendon  and  the  intermuscular 

septa, — in^o  the  2d  and  3d  phalanges  of  the  little  finger,  with  the  tendon 

derived   from    the   common    extensor.      Action,  as 

named.     Nerve,  posterior  interosseous. 
Extensor  Carpi  \J\i\zt\s,j  from  the  common  tendon, 

the  middle  one-third  of  the  posterior  border  of  the 

ulna,  and  the  fascia  of  the  forearm, — into  the  base 

of  the  5th  metacarpal  bone.     Action,  to  extend  the 

wrist.     Nerve,  posterior  interosseous. 

Anconeus,-^  yV-^^z  the  external  condyle  of  the  humerus, 
posteriorly, — into  the  side  of  the  olecranon,  and 
upper  one-third  of  the  posterior  surface  of  the  shaft 
of  the  ulna.  Action,  to  extend  the  foreaim.  Nerve, 
the  musculo-spiral. 

Supinator  Brevis,  from  the  external  condyle  of  the 
humerus,  the  external  lateral  and  orbicular  liga- 
ments, and  an  oblique  line  on  the  ulna, — into  the 
inner  surface  of  the  neck  of  the  radius,  the  outer 
edge  of  its  bicipital  tuberosity,  and  the  oblique  line. 
Action,  to  supinate  the  hand.  Nerve,  posterior  in- 
terosseous, which  pierces  it. 

Extensor  Ossis  Metacarpi  Pollicis,^*  from  the  pos- 
terior surfaces  of  the  shafts  of  the  radius  and  ulna, 
and  the  interosseous  ligament, — into  the  base  of  the 
metacarpal  bone  of  the  thumb.  Action,  to  extend 
the  thumb.     Nerve,  posterior  interosseous. 

Extensor  Primi   Intemodii  PoIlicis,«  from  the  pos- 
terior surface  of  the  shaft  of  the  radius  and  the  in- 
terosseous  membrane, — into   the    base   of   the    1st 
phalanx  of  the  thumb.      Action,  to  extend  the  thumb, 
interosseous. 


Nerve,  posterior 


Extensor  Secundi  Intemodii  Pollicis,'« /r^;«  the  shaft  of  the  ulna  poste- 
riorly and  the  interosseous  membrane, — into  the  base  of  the  last  phalanx 
of  the  thumb.  Action,  to  extend  the  thumb.  Nerve,  posterior  inter- 
osseous. 

Extensor  Indicis,  from  the  shaft  of  the  ulna  posteriorly  and  the  interosseous 
membrane, — into  the   2d  and  3d  phalanges  of  the   index   finger  with  the 
tendon  of  the  common  extensor.    Action,  to  extend  the  index  finger.    Nerve, 
posterior  interosseous. 
8* 


90  ANATOMY. 

FASCIAE  OF   THE   HAND. 

Anterior  Annular  Ligament,  from  the  pisiform  and  unciform  bones, — to 
the  tuberosity  of  the  scaphoid  and  the  ridge  on  the  trapezium.  It  is  pierced 
by  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  carpi  radialis,  and  beneath  it  pass  the  tendons 
of  the  superficial  and  deep  flexors  and  the  flexor  longus  pollicis,  also  the 
median  nerve.  It  is  continuous  with  the  palmar  fascia  and  the  fascia  of  the 
forearm. 

Posterior  Annular  Ligament,^  from  the  ulna,  cuneiform,  and  pisiform 
bones  and  the  palmar  fascia, — to  the  margin  of  the  radius  and  the  ridges  on 
its  posterior  surface.  It  has  6  canals  for  the  passage  of  the  extensor  tendons, 
each  lined  by  a  synovial  membrane.  It  is  continuous  with  the  fascia  of  the 
forearm. 

Palmar  Fascia,  ensheathes  the  muscles  of  the  hand,  and  divides  into  slips  for 
the  four  fingers,  each  slip  dividing  and  forming  tendinous  arches  for  the 
passage  of  the  flexor  tendons. 

MUSCLES   OF  THE   HAND. 
Abductor  Pollicis,^^  from  the  ridge  of  the  trapezium  and  annular  ligament, — 

into  the  radial  side  of  the  base  of  the  1st  phalanx  of  the  thumb.     Action^  to 

draw  the  thumb  from  the  median  line.     Nerve,  median. 
Cpponens  Pollicis,  from  the  palmar  surface  of  the  trapezium  and  annular 

ligament, — into  the  radial  side  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  thumb,  for  its 

whole  length.     Action,  as  a  flexor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis.     Nerve,  median. 
Flexor  Brevis  Pollicis,'^  from  the  trapezium,  annular  ligament,  trapezoid,  os- 

magnum,  base  of  the  3d  metacarpal,  and  the  sheath  of  the  tendon  of  the 

flexor  carpi  radialis, — into  both  sides  of  the  base  of  the  ist  phalanx  of  the 

thumb,  by  two  tendons,  each  of  which  has  a  sesamoid  bone  in  it.     Action, 

to  flex  the  thumb.     Nerves,  median  and  ulnar. 
Adductor  Pollicis, /"r^;??  the  whole  palmar  surface  of  the  3d  metacarpal  bone, 

— into  the  ulnar  side  of  the  base  of  the  ist  phalanx  of  the  thumb,  and  the 

internal  sesamoid  bone.     Action,  to  draw  the  thumb  towards  the  median 

line.     Nerve,  ulnar. 
Thenar  Eminence,  or  ball  of  the  thumb,  is  formed  by  the  above-named  4 

muscles.     The  following  first  4  form  the  Hypo-thenar  Eminence. 
Falmaris  Brevis,^"  from  the  annular  ligament  and  palmar  fascia, — into  the 

skin  on  the  inner  border  of  the  palm  of  the  hand.     Action,  to  corrugate  the 

skin  of  the  hand.     Nerve,  ulnar. 
Abductor  Minimi  Digiti,  from  the  pisiform  bone  and  the  tendon  of  the  flexor 

carpi  ulnaris, — into  the  ulnar  side  of  the  base  of  the  1st  phalanx  of  the  little 

finger.     Action,  as  named.     No-ve,  ulnar. 


MUSCLES   OF  THE   HIP  AND  THIGH.  91 

Flexor  Brevis  Minimi  Digiti, /rofu  the  tip  of  the  unciform  process  and  the 
annular  ligament, — into  the  base  of  the  ist  phalanx  of  the  little  finger,  wiih 
the  preceding  muscle.     Action,  as  named.     Nerve,  ulnar. 

Opponens  Minimi  Digiti,  from  the  unciform  process  and  annular  ligament, — 
into  the  whole  ulnar  margin  of  the  5th  metacarpal  bone.  Action,  a  flexor 
of  the  5th  metacarpal  bone.     Nerve,  ulnar. 

Lumbricales  (4),  from  the  tendons  of  the  deep  flexor, — into  the  expanded 
tendons  of  the  common  extensor,  on  the  dorsi  of  the  phalanges.  Action, 
probably  to  flex  the  ist  phalanges.     Nerves,  median  and  ulnar. 

Dorsal  Interossei  (4),  by  2  heads  from  the  adjacent  sides  of  the  metacarpal 
bones, — into  the  bases  of  the  ist  phalanges  of  the  index,  middle,  and  ring 
fingers,  the  middle  finger  having  two.  Action,  abductors  of  the  fingers  from 
the  median  line.     Nerzie,  ulnar. 

Palmar  Interossei  (3),  from  the  palmar  surfaces  of  the  2d,  4lh,  and  5th  meta- 
carpal bones, — into  the  bases  of  the  1st  phalanges  of  the  same  fingers. 
Action,  adductors  of  the  fingers.     Nerve,  ulnar. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  HIP  AND  THIGH. 

Psoas  Magnus,^ ^yr^;^  the  bodies,  transverse  processes,  and  intervertebral 
substances  of  the  last  dorsal  and  all  the  lumbar  vertebrge, — into  the  lesser 
trochanter  of  the  femur,  by  a  common  tendon  with  the  iliacus.  Action,  to 
flex  and  rotate  the  femur  outwards,'  also  to  flex  the  trunk  and  pelvis  on  the 
thigh.     Nerves,  anterior  lumbar  branches. 

Psoas  'Psjrras,  fro?n  the  bodies  of  the  last  dorsal  and  first  lumbar  vertebrae, 
and  the  intervertebral  substance,— m/t?  the  ilio-pectineal  eminence,  and  the 
iliac  fascia.  Action,  when  present  it  is  a  tensor  of  the  iliac  fascia.  Nerves, 
anterior  lumbar  branches. 

Iliacus,^"  from  the  iliac  fossa,  inner  margin  of  the  iliac  crest,  ilio-lumbar 
ligament,  base  of  the  sacrum,  anterior  spinous  processes  of  the  ilium  and 
the  notch  between  them,  and  from  the  capsule  of  the  hip-joint, — into  the 
outer  side  of  the  tendon  of  the  psoas  magnus.  Action,  the  same  as  the 
psoas  magnus.     Nen>e,  anterior  crural. 

Fascia  Lata,  the  deep  fascia  of  the  thigh,  extends  from  Poupart's  ligament 
to  the  prominent  points  around  the  knee-joint,  and  from  the  margin  of  the 
sacrum  and  coccyx  around  the  limb  to  the  pubic  arch  and  pectineal  line. 
It  sends  two  strong  intermuscular  septa  down  to  the  linea  aspera,  and  con- 
tains the  Saphenous  Opening,  which  is  fonned  by  the  reflected  margins  of 
its  pubic  and  iliac  portions.  Pouparf  s  Ligament  is  made  by  the  knife,  and 
is  only  the  line  of  junction  between  the  aponeurosis  of  the  external  oblique 


92 


ANATOMY. 


Fig.  47. 


"i 


muscle  and  the  fascia  lata ;  extending  from  the  anterior  superior  spine  of 
the  ilium  to  the  spin^  of  the  pubic  bone. 

Tensor  V  aginse  Femoris,*  /fom  the  anterior  part  of 
the  outer  lip  of  tlie  iliac  crest,  and  the  anterior 
superior  spinous  process, — into  the  fascia  lata  later- 
ally, for  one-fourth  down  the  thigh.  Action,  a 
tensor  of  the  fascia  lata.     Nerve,  superior  gluteal. 

Sartorius,*  from  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the 
ilium  2  and  half  of  the  notch  below  it, — into  the 
upper  internal  surface  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia. 
Action,  to  flex  and  cross  the  legs.  Nerve,  anterior 
crural. 

Quadriceps  Extensor,  includes  the  rectus,  vastus 
internus  and  externus,  and  the  crureus  muscles. 
Its  tendon  contains  the  patella. 
lectus  Femoris,^  by  two  tendons,  the  Straight  from 
the  anterior  inferior  spine  of  the  ilium,  the  Reflected 
from  a  groove  above  the  brim  of  the  acetabulum, 
— into  the  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  by  the  tendon  * 
common  to  this  and  the  next  3  muscles.  Action,  to 
extend  the  leg.     Nerve,  anterior  crural. 

Vastus  Externus,'^  front  the  anterior  border  of  the 
great  trochanter  and  the  whole  length  of  the  linea 
aspera, — into  the  tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  by  the 
common  tendon. 

Vastus  Internus  ^  and  Crureus  are  one  muscle,  arising 
from  the  inner  lip  of  the  linea  aspera  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur  in  front  and 
laterally  from  the  trochanters  down  to  within  the 
lower  one-fourth  of  the  bone, — into  the  tuberosity  of  the  tibia  by  the  common 
extensor  tendon.     Action,  to  extend  the  leg.     Nerve,  anterior  crural. 

Subcrureus,  from  the  lower  part  of  the  femur  anteriorly, — into  the  synovial 

pouch  behind  the  patella.     Action,  to  draw  up  the  synovial  sac.     Nerve, 

anterior  crural. 
Qir2SiTX\'&}^  from  the  inner  margin  of  the  rami  of  the  pubes  and  ischium, — into 

the  inner  surface  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia  below  the  tuberosity.     Action,  to 

flex  and  adduct  the  leg.     Nerve,  obturator. 
Pectineus,i2  from  the  ilio-pectineal  line,  and  the  bone  in  front  thereof,  also 

from  an  expansion  of  Gimbernat's  ligament, — into  the  rough  line  extending 


f 


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if 


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MUSCLES    OF    THE    HIP   AND    THIGH. 


93 


from  the  trochanter  minor  to  the  linea  aspera.     Action,  to  flex  the  thigh 

and  rotate  it  outwards.     Nerves^  obturator,  accessory  obturator,  and  anterior 

crural. 
Adductor   Longus,^^/)-^/^/  the  front  of  the  pubes, — into  the  middle  third  of 

the  linea  aspera.     Action,  to  adduct  the  thigh  and  flex  it.     Nerve,  obturator. 
Adductor  Brevis,  front  the  descending  ramus  of  the  pubes, — into  the  upper 

part  of  the  linea  aspera.     Action,  to  adduct  and  flex  the   thigh.     Nerve, 

obturator. 

Adductor  Magnus,^*  from  the  rami  of  the  pubes  and  ischium,  and  the  outer 
margin  and  under  surface  of  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium, — into  the  rough 
line  leading  from  the  great  trochanter  to  the  linea  aspera,  the  whole  length 
of  the  linea  aspera,  and  by  a  tendon  into  the  tubercle  above  the  inner  con- 


FlG.  48. 


dyle  of  the  femur.  Action,  to  adduct  the  thigh 
and  rotate  it  outwards.  A^ei-ves,  obturator  and 
great  sciatic.  This  muscle  is  pierced  by  4  aper- 
tures for  the  3  superior  perforating  and  the  profunda 
arteries,  and  about  the  lower  one-third  of  its 
insertion  an  angular  interval  is  left  therein,  the 
lower  opening  of  Hunter's  canal,  for  the  passage 
of  the  femoral  vessels  into  the  popliteal  space. 

Gluteus   Maximus,^  from  the  superior  curved   line 

of  the  ilium,  the  crest  behind  it,  the  last  piece  of 

the  sacrum,  the  side  of  the  coccyx  and  the  great 

and    posterior    sacro-sciatic    ligaments, — into    the 

fascia   lata   and   the  rough   line  leading  from  the 

great   trochanter   to   the  linea  aspera.     Action,  to 

extend  and  abduct  the  thigh  and  rotate  it  out- 
wards, also  to  maintain  the  trunk  erect.     Nerves, 

inferior    gluteal    and    a  branch   from    the   sacral 

plexus. 
Gluteus   Medius,«  from  the  ilium   between  the  su- 
perior and  middle  curved  lines,  the  crest  between 

them  and  the   fascia  of  the  part, — into  the  oblique 

lines  on  the  great  trochanter.     Action,  its  posterior 

fibres  rotate  the  thigh  outwards,  its  anterior  fibres 

rotate  inwards.      It   also   abducts   the   thigh    and 

draws  it  forwards,  and  assists  to  maintain  the  trunk 

erect.     Nerve,  superior  gluteal. 
Gluteus  Minimus,^  from  the  ilium  between  the  middle  and  inferior  curved 

lines,  and  the  margin  of  the  great  sacro-sciatic  notch, — into  the   anterior 


94 


border  of  the  great  trochanter.     Aciion,  to  rotate  the  thigh  inwards,  also 
to  abduct  and  draw   it  forwards,  and  to  maintain  the  trunk  erect.     Nerve, 
superior  gUiteal. 
Pyriformis,^  by  3  digitations  from  the  front  of  the  sacrum,  from  the  margin 
of  the  great  sacro-sciatic  foramen  and  the  great  sacro-sciatic  ligament, — into 
the  upper  border  of  the  great  trochanter,''  having  passed  through  the  great 
sacro-sciatic  foramen.     Aciion,  an  external  rotator  of  the  thigh.     Nerves, 
branches  from  the  sacral  plexus. 
Obturator    Intemus,^^  from    the   posterior    bony   margin   of   the   obturator 
foramen  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  obturator  membrane, — into  the  great  tro- 
chanter,''  passing  through  the  lesser  sacro-sciatic  notch.     Action,  an  external 
rotator  of  the  thigh.     Nerves,  branches  from  the  sacral  plexus. 
Gemellus  Superior ,^°  fr-om  the  outer  surface  of  the  spine  of  the  ischium, — 
into  the  great  trochanter,  being  blended  with  the  tendon  of  the  obturator 
intemus.     Action,  an  external  rotator  of  the  thigh.     Nerves,  branches  from 
the  sacral  plexus. 
Gemellus   Inferior,^''*  from   the   tuberosity  of  the  ischium, — i7ito   the  tendon 
of    the   obturator  internus  and   the    great  trochanter.     Action,  an  external 
rotator  of  the  thigh.     Nerves,  branches  from  the  sacral  plexus. 

Obturator  Extemus,  from  the  anterior 
inner  bony  margin  of  the  obturator  fora- 
men, and  the  inner  two-thirds  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  obturator  mem- 
brane,— into  the  digital  fossa  of  the 
femur  at  the  inner  base  of  the  great 
trochanter.  Action,  an  external  rotator 
of  the  thigh.  N'erve,  obturator. 
Quadratus  Femoris,^'  frojn  the  tuberosity 
of  the  ischium, — into  the  upper  part  of 
the  linea  quadrati  on  the  trochanter 
major  posteriorly.  Action,  an  external 
rotator  of  the  thigh.  Nerves,  branches 
from  the  sacral  plexus. 
Biceps,^^  by  2  heads,  the  Long  Head<i  from 
the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  posteri- 
orly, the  Short  Head,e  from  the  outer 
lip  of  the  linea  aspera,  and  the  inter- 
muscular septum, — into  the  outer  side 
of  the  head  of  the  fibula;  its  tendon  embracing  the  external  lateral  ligament 
of  the  knee-joint,  and  forming  the  Outer  Hamstring,  \he.  tendons  of  the  semi 


/ 
r 


y 


/ 


y 


MUSCLES    OF   'i"HK    LEG.  95 

tendinosus,  semi-membranosus,  gracilis,  and  sartorius,  forming  the  Inner 
Hamstring.  Action,  to  flex  the  leg  and  rotate  it  outwards.  Nerve,  great 
sciatic. 

Seini-tendinosus,/yr(?/;/  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  l)y  a  tendon*  common 

.  to  it  and  the  long  head  of  the  biceps,  and  from  the  adjacent  aponeurosis, — 
into  the  shaft  of  the  tibia  at  its  upper  and  inner  surface,  its  tendon  curving 
around  the  inner  tuberosity.  Action,  to  flex  the  leg  upon  the  Wxx^J^ Nerve, 
great  sciatic, 

Semi-membranosus,^  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  above  the  origin  of 
the  above-named  muscles, — into  the  inner  tuberosity  of  the  tibia;  its  tendon 
dividing  into  3  parts,  one  over  the  popliteus  muscle,  and  another  forming 
the  posterior  ligament  of  the  knee-joint.  Action,  to  flex  the  leg,  and  rotate 
it  inwards.     Nerve,  great  sciatic. 

External  Rotators  of  the  Hip-joitit  are  12^, — the  3  adductors,  pyriformis,  2 
obturators,  2  gemelli,  pectineus,  psoas  magnus,  iliacus,  sartorius,  and  poste- 
rior half  of  the  gluteus  medius. 

Internal  Rotators  of  the  Hip-joint  are  2^, — the  tensor  vaginae  femoris,  gluteus 
minimus,  and  the  anterior  half  of  the  gluteus  medius. 

MUSCLES   OF   THE   LEG. 

Muscles  of  the  leg  arranged  in  groups  of  threes.     (Pancoast.) 
Tibialus  Anticus.  Tibialus  Posticus. 

Extensor  Proprius  Pollicis.  Plexor  Longus  Pollicis. 

Extensor  Longus  Digitorum.  Flexor  Longus  Digitorum. 

Gastrocnemius.  Peroneus  Longus. 

Soleus.  Peroneus  Brevis. 

Plantaris.  Popliteus.  Peroneus  Tertius. 

Tibialis  Anti^cus'  (Flexor  Tarsi  Tibialis), /row  the  outer  tuberosity  and  upper 
two-thirds  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia  externally,  the  interosseous  membrane, 
deep  fascia,  and  intermuscular  septum, — through  the  inner  canal  in  the 
anterior  annular  ligament  into  the  inner  and  plantar  surface  of  the  internal 
cuneiform  bone,  and  the  base  of  the  1st  metatarsal.  Action,  to  flex  the  tarsus 
on  the  leg,  and  elevate  the  inner  border  of  the  foot.     Nerve,  anterior  tibial. 

Extensor  Proprius  Pollicis,^  from  the  middle  two-fourths  of  the  fibula  ante- 
riorly and  the  interosseous  membrane, — through  the  2d  canal  in  the  anterior 
annular  ligament, — into  the  base  of  the  last  phalanx  of  the  great  toe.  Action, 
to  extend  that  toe.     Nerve,  anterior  tibial. 

Extensor  Longus  Digitorum,</ro/w  the  outer  tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  the  upper 
three-fourths  of  the  shaft  of  the  fibula  anteriorly,  interosseous  membrane, 
deep  fascia,  and  intermuscular  septa, — into  the  2d  and  3d  phalanges  of  the 


96 


ANATOMY. 


4  lesser  toes,  by  4  tendons  which  pass  over  the  dorsum  of  the  foot,  from  the 
outer  canal  in  the  anterior  annular  ligament.  /1c- 
Hon,  to  extend  the  lesser  toes.    Nerve,  anterior  tibial. 


Fig.  50. 


Peroneus  TertiusS  (Flexor  Tarsi  Fibularis),//w«  the 
outer  lower  one-fourth  of  the  fibula,  interosseous' 
membrane,  and  intermuscular  septum, — into  the 
base  of  the  5th  metatarsal  bone.  This  muscle  is 
a  part  of  the  last  named,  and  passes  through  the 
same  canal  in  the  annular  ligament.  Action,  to 
flex  the  tarsus.     Nerve,  anterior  tibial. 

Gastrocnemius,  by  2  heads  from  the  condyles  of 
the  femur,  and  the  supra-condyloid  ridges, — unites 
with  the  tendon  of  the  soleus  to  form  the  tendo 
Achillis,  into  the  posterior  tuberosity  of  the  os  calcis. 
Action,  to  extend  the  foot.    Nerve,  internal  popliteal. 

Soleus,  from  the  head  and  upper  one-half  of  the 
shaft  of  the  fibula  posteriorly,  the  oblique  line  of 
the  tibia,  and  the  tendinous  arch, — unites  with  the 
tendon  of  the  gastrocnemius  as  the  tendo  Achillis 
(see  above).  Action,  to  extend  the  foot.  Nerve, 
internal  popliteal. 

Plantaris,  from  the  outer  bifurcation  of  the  linea 
aspera,  and  posterior  ligament  of  the  knee-joint, 
by  a  very  long,  delicate  tendon, — into  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  os  calcis.  Action,  to  extend  the  foot. 
Nerve,  internal  popliteal. 
Popliteus,^yr^w  a  depression  on  the  external  condyle 
of  the  femur,  and  the  posterior  ligament  of  the  knee- 
joint, — into  the  inner  two-thirds  of  the  triangular  surface  on  the  shaft  of 
the  tibia  posteriorly  and  above  the  oblique  line.  Action,  to  flex  the  leg. 
Nerve,  internal  popliteal. 

Flexor  Longus  Pollicis,' /r(?w  the  lower  two-thirds  of  the  shaft  of  the  fibula 
internally,  the  interosseous  membrane,  fascia,  and  intermuscular  septum, — 
through  grooves  in  the  tibia,  astragalus,  and  os  calcis, — into  the  base  of  the 
last  phalanx  of  the  great  toe.  Action,  to  flex  the  great  toe.  Nerve,  poste- 
rior tibial. 

Flexor  Longus  Digitorum,^  from  the  shaft  of  the  tibia  posteriorly  and 
below  the  oblique  line,  and  the  intermuscular  septum, — passes  behind  the 
inner  malleolus  in  a  groove^^  with  the  tibialis  posticus, — into  the  bases  of 


FASCIi^   OF  THE   FOOT. 


97 


1 


the  last  phalanges  of  the  lesser  toes  by  4  tendons  which 
perforate  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  brevis  digitorum. 
Action,  to  flex  the  phalanges  and  extend  the  foot.  Nerve, 
posterior  tibial. 

Tibialis  Posti^cus,^  by  two  processes  between  which  pass  the 
anterior  tibial  vessels,  from  the  upper  one-half  of  shafl  of 
the  tibia  posteriorly,  the  upper  two-thirds  of  ihe  shaft  of  the 
fibula  internally,  the  interosseous  membrane,  deep  fascia, 
and  intermuscular  septa, — passes  behind  the  inner  malle- 
olus in  a  groove  ^'  with  the  long  flexor,  into  the  tuberosity 
of  the  scaphoid  and  internal  cuneiform  bones.  Action,  to 
extend  the  tarsus,  and  invert  the  foot.  Nerve,  posterior 
tibial. 

Peroneus  Longus,^*'  from  the  head  of  the  fibula  and  the 
upper  two-thirds  of  its  shaft  externally,  the  deep  fascia, 
and  intermuscular  septa, — ^passes  behind  the  outer  malleo- 
lus in  a  groove  with  the  peroneus  brevis,  through  a  groove 
in  the  cuboid  bone,  to  the  outer  side  of  the  base  of  the 
1st  metatarsal  bone.  Action,  to  extend  and  evert  the  foot. 
Nerve,  musculo-cutaneous. 

Peroneus  Brevis,^i  from  the  middle  one-third  of  the  shaft 
of  the  fibula  externally,  and  the  intermuscular  septa, — 
passes  behind  the  external  malleolus  in  a  groove  with 
the  long  peroneal,  into  the  dorsum  of  the  base  of  the  5th 
metatarsal  bone.  Action,  to  extend  the  foot.  Nei-ve, 
musculo-cutaneous  branch  of  external  popliteal. 


Fro. 


!!■ 


FASCI/E  OF  THE   FOOT. 
V    Anterior  Annular  Ligament,  consists  of  vertical  and  horizontal  portions, 
\        is  attached  to  the  lower  ends  of  the  fibula  and  tibia,  the  os  calcis  and  the 
plantar  fascia.     It  contains  5  sheaths  lined  by  synovial  membranes  for  the 
tendons  of  the  extensor  muscles,  that  of  the  extensor  proprius  pollicis  pass- 
ing beneath  it,  as  also  the  anterior  tibial  vessels  and  nerve. 
A  Internal  Annular  Ligament,  from  the  inner  malleolus  to  the  03  calcis, 
1      converting  3  bony  grooves  into  canals  lined  by  synovial  membranes  for  the 
flexor  tendons  and  the  posterior  tibial  vessels  and  nerve. 
External  Annular  Ligament,  from  the  outer  malleolus  to  the  os  calcis, 
,     binding  down  the  peronei  tendons  in  one  synovial  sac. 
^    Plantar  Fascia,  the  densest  in  the  body,  divided  into  a  central  and  two 
lateral  portions,  and  attached  to  the  inner  tuberosity  of  the  os  calcis,  divides 
into  5  processes,  i  for  each  toe,  and  several  intermuscular  septa. 
9  G 


\ 


98 


ANATOMY. 


i 


{ 


MUSCLES   OF   THE   FOOT. 
Extensor   Brevis  Digitorum,  the  only  muscle  on   the  dorsum  of  the  foot, 
arises  from  the  os  calcis  externally,  the  astragalo-calcanean  and  the  anterior 
annular  ligaments, — by  4  tendons,  i  into  the  1st  phalanx  of  the  great  toe, 
and  the  others  into  the  outer  sides  of  the  long  extensor  tendons  of  the  2d, 
3d,  and  4th  toes.     Action,  to  extend  the  toes.     Nerve,  anterior  tibial. 
Muscles  on  the  sole  of  the  foot  (19),  by  layers: — 
1st  Layer.  3d  Layei". 

Flexor  Brevis  Digitorum.     Flexor  Brevis  Pollicis. 

Flexor  Brevis  Minimi  Digiti. 
Adductor  Pollicis. 
I  .tfu  j^uyer.  Transversus  Pedis. 

L     Flexor  Accessorius.  4th  Layer. 

W    Lumbricales  (4).  Interossei  (^  Dorsal,  j  Plantar^. 

the  inner  tuberosity  of  the  os  calcis,  the  internal 


Abductor  Pollicis. 
Abductor  Minimi  Digiti. 

2d  Layer. 
Flexor  Accessorius. 
Lumbricales  (4). 
Abductor  Pollicis,^  from 


1  Pancoast's  Tri- 
J-  angle,  the  low- 
J  est  in  the  body. 


annular  ligament,  plantar  fascia,  and  intermuscular  septum, — iftto  the  inner 
side  of  the  base  of  the  ist  phalanx  of  the  great  toe.     Action,  to  abduct  the 
great  toe.     Nerve,  internal  plantar. 
'Flexor  Brevis  Digitorum,/  from  the  inner  tuberosity  of  the  os  calcis,  the 
plantar  fascia   and   intermuscular   septa, — into   the   sides  of   the  2d   pha- 


FiG.  52. 


A 


langes  of  the  lesser  toes  by  4  tendons  which 
are  perforated  for  the  long  flexor  tendons. 
Action,  to  flex  the  lesser  toes.  Nerue,  internal 
plantar. 

Abductor  Minimi  Digitij/^  from  the  outer  tuber- 
osity and  under  surface  of  the  os  calcis,  the 
plantar  fascia  and  the  intermuscular  seplum, — 
into  the  base  of  the  1st  phalanx  of  the  little  toe 
with  the  tendon  of  its  short  flexor.  Action,  to 
abduct  the  little  toe.     Nerve,  external  plantar. 

Flexor  Accessorius,  by  2  heads,  from  the  os 
calcis  and  the  calcaneo-scaphoid  and  long 
plantar  ligaments, — into  the  tendon  of  the  flexor 
longus  digitorum.  Action,  accessory  flexor  of 
the  toes.     Nerve,  external  plantar. 

Lumbricales^  {4.),  from  the  long  flexor  tendons 
— into  the  inner  side  of  the  second  phalanges 
of  the  lesser  toes.  Action,  accessory  flexors. 
Nerves,  internal  plantar  to  the  two  internal, 
external  plantar  to  the  others. 


I 


THE   HEART.  99 

Flexor  Brevis  Pollicis,<^  from  the  cuboid  and  external  cuneiform  bones,  and  the 
prolonged  tendon  of  the  tibialis  posticus, — into  both  sides  of  the  base  of  the 
1st  phalanx  of  the  great  toe,  by  2  portions,  of  which  one  blends  with  the 
abductor  pollicis,  the  other  with  the  adductor  pollicis.  Action^  to  flex  the 
great  toe.     Nerve,  internal  plantar. 

Adductor  Pollicis, /r^^w  the  tarsal  ends  of  the  three  middle  metatarsal  bones, 
and  the  sheath  of  the  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus, — into  the  base  of  the 
1st  phalanx  of  the  great  toe,  externally.  Action,  to  adduct  the  great  toe. 
Nerve,  external  plantar. 

Flexor  Brevis  Minimi  Digiti,^'  from  the  base  of  the  5tli  metatarsal  bone  and 
the  sheath  of  the  tendon  of  the  peroneus  longus, — into  the  base  of  tha^-ist 
phalanx  of  the  little  toe  externally.  Action,  to  flex  the  little  toe.  Nerve, 
external  plantar. 

Transversus  Pedis,  from  the  under  surface  of  the  head  of  the  5th  metatarsal 
bone,  and  the  transverse  ligament  of  the  metatarsus, — into  the  outer  side  of 
the  1st  phalanx  of  the  great  toe,  blending  with  the  tendon  of  the  adductor 
pollicis.     Action,  to  addtict  the  great  toe.     Nerve,  external  plantar. 

Dorsal  Interossei  (4),  each  by  two  headsy9'^z?z  the  adjacent  sides  of  two  meta- 
tarsal bones, — i^ito  the  base  of  the  ist  phalanx  of  the  corresponding  toe. 
Action,  to  alxluct  the  toes.     Nerve,  external  plantar. 

Plantar  Interosseiy  (3),  from  the  shafts  of  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th  metatarsal 
bones, — into  the  bases  of  the  ist  phalanges  of  the  same  toes.  Action,  to 
adduct  the  toes  towards  the  median  line.     A^erve,  external  plantar. 

THE  HEART. 
What  is  the  Pericardium  ?  It  is  a  conical  membranous  closed  sac,  con- 
taining the  heart  and  the  roots  of  the  great  vessels.  It  lies  behind  the  sternum 
and  between  the  pleurae,  its  apex  upwards,  its  base  below  and  attached  to  the 
central  tendon  of  the  diaphragm.  It  is  composed  of  an  outer  fibrous  coat, 
and  an  inner  serous  one ;  the  latter  consisting  of  two  portions,  a  parietal  layer, 
lining  the  inner  surface  of  the  fibrous  coat,  and  a  visceral  layer,  which  is  re- 
flected over  the  heart  and  vessels.  The  serous  portion  secretes  a  thin  fluid, 
about  I  drachm  in  quantity  normally,  for  the  lubrication  of  its  surfaces.  The 
fibrous  coat  is  prolonged  on  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  great  vessels,  except  the 
inferior  vena  cava,  and  becomes  continuous  with  the  deep  layer  of  the  cervical 
fascia. 

Describe  the  Endocardium.  It  is  a  serous  membrane  which  lines  the 
inner  surface  of  the  heart,  forming  by  its  reduplications  the  cardiac,  aortic, 
and  pulmonary  valves,  and  continuous  with  the  lining  membrane  of  the  great 
vessels. 


100  ANATOMY, 

Describe  the  Heart.  It  is  a  hollow  muscular  organ,  conoidal  in  shape, 
placed  obliquely  in  the  chest  between  the  lungs,  base  upwards,  apex  towards 
the  left  and  front  corresponding  to  the  interspace  between  the  5th  and  6th 
costal  cartilages,  one  inch  inside  of  and  two  inches  below  the  left  nipple.  In 
the  adult  its  size  is  about  5  inches  by  3^  by  2^,  and  from  8  to  12  oz.  in 
weight. 

What  are  the  Cavities  of  the  Heart?  They  are  4  in  number,  an 
auricle  and  a  ventricle  on  each  side  of  the  heart,  separated  by  a  longitudinal 
muscular  septum,  and  indicated  on  the  external  surface  of  the  organ  by  grooves, 
named,  from  their  contiguous  cavities,  as  the  Auriado-ventj'icular  Groove. 

Describe  the  Right  Auricle.  It  is  larger  than  the  left,  can  hold  about  2 
fluidounces,  its  walls  being  about  I  line  in  thickness.  It  receives  the  venous 
blood  by  the  superior  and  inferior  venae  cava;  and  the  coronary  sinus,  and 
presents  interiorly  the  following  points  for  examination:  — 

Appendix  Auriculcp,  a  conical  pouch  projecting  from  the  auricle  to  the  front 

and  left,  its  margins  being  dentated. 
Openings  of  the  superior  and  inferior  venae  cavse  and  the  coronary  sinus,  the 

latter  having  a  valve  in  two  segments. 
Foramina  Thebesii,  several  minute  orifices,  the  mouths  of  veins  from  the 

substance  of  the  heart. 
Tubercle  of  Lower,  a  very  small  projection  on  the  right  wall,  supposed  to 

influence  the  direction  of  the  blood-current. 
Eustachian  Valve,  at  the  anterior  margin  of  the  inferior  vena  cava ;  large  in 

the  foetus,  to  direct  the  blood  to  the  foramen  ovale. 
Fossa  Ovalis,  a  depression  on  the  inner  wall,  and  the  situation  of  the  foramen 

ovale  in  the  foetus. 
Annulus  Ovalis,  the  oval  margin  of  the  fossa  ovalis. 
Musculi  FecHnaii,  muscular  columns  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  appendix 

and  the  inner  wall  of  the  auricle. 
Auriculo-ventricular  Opening,  communicates  with  the  right  ventricle,  is  oval, 

about  an  inch  broad,  surrounded  by  a  fibrous  ring,  and  is  guarded  by  the 

tricuspid  valve. 

Describe  the  Right  Ventricle.  Its  form  is  conical,  its  cavity  containing 
about  2  fluidounces,  its  apex  above  the  apex  of  the  heart,  and  it  presents  in- 
teriorly the  following,  viz. — 

Tricuspid  Valve,  consists  of  3  triangular  segments  connected  by  their  bases 
with  the  auriculo-ventricular  orifice,  and  by  their  sides  with  each  other, 
the  largest  being  on  the  left  side. 
Chordce  Tending,  delicate  tendinous  cords  which  connect  the  margins  and 
lower  surfaces  of  the  tricuspid  valve  with  the  columnse. 


THE    HEARi\ 


101 


ColumncB  CarnecB,  muscular  columns  projecting  from  the  surface  of  the  ven- 
tricle, of  which  3  or  4,  called  Colunince  Papillares,  give  attachment  to  the 
chordae  tendinge. 
Semilunar  Valves,  are  3  in  number,  and  guard  the  orifice  of  the  pulmonary 
artery,  each  about  the  middle  of  its  free  margin  has  a  fibro-cartilaginous 
nodule,  the  Corpus  Arantii,  which  more  perfectly  closes  the  orifice. 
Opening  of  the  Pulmonary  Artery,  at  the  superior  and  internal  angle  of  the 
ventricle,  the  Conus  Arteriosus.     It  is  circular  in  form,  surrounded  by  a 
fibrous  ring,  and  is  guarded  by  the  semilunar  valves. 
Sinuses  of  Valsalva,  are  3  pouches,  one  behind  each  valve,  between  it  and 

the  commencement  of  the  pulmonary  arteiy. 
Describe  the  Left  Auricle.      Its  walls  are  about  i^  lines  in  thickness, 
its  capacity  rather  less  than  2   fluidounces,  has   an  appendix   auriculae,  and 
receives  the  arterialized  blood  from  the  lungs.     It  presents  the  following  in- 
ternally : — 

Openings  of  the  Pulmonary  Veins,  are  4  in  number,  sometimes  3,  as  the  two 

left  veins  frequently  end  in  a  common  opening. 
Left  Auriculo-vcntricular  Opening,  is  smaller  than  the  right  one. 
Musculi  Pectinati,  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  appendix. 
Depression,  corresponding  to  the  fossa  ovalis  in  the  right  auricle. 
Describe     the     Left    Ventricle. 
It  is  longer,  thicker,  and  more  coni- 
cal than  the  right,  projecting  towards 
the  posterior  aspect.     Its  walls«  are 
the  thickest  of  those  in  the  heart, 
being  twice  as  thick  as  those  of  the 
right  ventricle.    Its  interior  presents 
the  following : — 

Aortic  Opening,  is  small  and  cir- 
cular, placed  in  front   and  to 
the  right  of  the  auriculo-ven- 
tricular,  a  segment  of  the  mitral 
valve  being  between  them.     It 
is  surrounded  by  a  fibrous  ring, 
and     guarded     by    semilunar 
valves. 
Mitral  Valve,c   consists    of   two 
unequal-sized  segments,  and  is 
attached  to  the    fibrous   ring  which   surrounds   the   auriculo-ventricular 
opening.     Its  margins  are  connected  with  the  ventricular  walls  by  Chorda 
Tendinced  and  Musculi  Papillares. 
9* 


< 


102  ANATOMY. 

Semilunar  Valves,  guard  the  aortic  orifice,  and  are  larger  and  stronger  than 

those  on  the  right  side. 
Sinus  Aortici,  or  sinus  of  Valsalva,  a  pouch  between  each  valve   and  the 

beginning  of  the  aorta. 
Columnce  Carnece^e  are  smaller  and  more  numerous  than  on  the  right  side ; 

the  Musculi  Papiilares  are  but  two  in  number. 
Describe  the  Structure  of  the  Heart.  The  muscular  fibres  take  origin 
from  the  four  fibrous  rings  at  the  auriculo-ventricular  and  aortic  openings. 
The  fibres  of  the  auricles  are  arranged  in  two  layers,  a  superficial  and  a  deep 
one,  the  latter  having  looped  fibres  and  annular  fibres.  In  the  ventricles  the 
fibres  are  superficial  and  deep,  the  latter  being  arranged  circularly,  the  former 
spirally,  coiling  inwards  at  the  apex  of  the  heart  into  a  whorl-like  form,  the 
vortex. 

THE   ARTERIES. 

What  are  the  Arteries  ?  Cylindrical  vessels  which  carry  arterial  blood  to 
the  body  from  the  heart.  Those  going  to  the  lungs  with  the  returning  veins, 
form  the  Lesser  or  Pulmonic  Circulation.  The  aorta  with  its  branches  and  the 
returning  veins,  constitute  the  Greater  or  Syste??iic  Circulation.  The  arteries 
anastomose  or  communicate  freely  with  each  other  everywhere  throughout  the 
body,  permitting  the  establishment  of  collateral  circulations. 

Describe  the  Structure  of  the  Arteries.  They  are  dense,  very  elastic, 
preserving  their  cylindrical  form,  and  are  composed  of  3  coats,  a7t  Internal  or 
serous;  a  Middle,  which  is  of  muscular  and  elastic  tissue;  and  an  External, 
of  connective  tissue.  They  are  generally  included  in  a  fibro-areolar  invest- 
ment, the  Sheath,  which  also  encloses  the  accompanying  veins.  The  larger 
arteries  are  nourished  by  the  Vasa  Vasorum,  blood-vessels  which  ramify  in  the 
external  and  middle  coats;  and  are  supplied  with  nerves,  the  Vaso-motor, 
derived  from  both  the  sympathetic  and  cerebro-spinal  systems,  and  forming 
intricate  plexuses  on  the  larger  trunks. 

"What  are  the  Capillaries  ?  Minute  vessels  forming  a  network  throughout 
the  tissues  of  the  body  between  the  terminating  arteries  and  the  commencing 
veins.  Their  average  diameter  is  about  the  -goVTr  °^  ^^  inch,  and  their  walls 
consist  of  a  transparent  homogeneous  membrane  continuous  with  the  innermost 
layer  of  the  arterial  and  venous  walls. 

[In  the  following  pages,  main  branches  are  in  italics,  sub-branches  in  Roman.] 

Describe  the  Aorta.  It  is  the  main  trunk  of  the  systemic  arteries,  com- 
mencing at  the  aortic  opening  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  arching  back- 
wards over  the  roof  of  the  left  lung  into  the  thorax,  where  it  descends  on  the 
left  of  the  spinal  column,  and  after  passing  through  the  aortic  opening  in  the 
diaphragm,  it  terminates  in  the  right  and  left  common  iliac  arteries  opposite 


THE   ARTERIES. 


103 


the  4th  lumbar  vertebra.  It  is  divided  into  the  arch,  the  thoracic  aorta,  and  the 
abdominal  aorta ;  and  the  arch  is  subdivided  into  the  ascending,^  transverse,^  and 
descending  '"^  portions.  The  upper  border  of  the  arch  is  generally  situated  about 
an  incli  below  the  upper  margin  of  the  sternum.  The  branches  of  the  aorta  are, — 
From  the  Arch, — 2  Coronary.^  Left  Common  Carotid}^ 
Innoi7iinaie^        Left  Subclavian}^ 


(Esophageal.         20  Lntercostals. 
Foiterior  Mediastinal. 


From  the  Thoracic, — Pericardiac. 
Bronchial. 

From  the  Abdominal, — 2  Phrenic. 

(   Gastric.        2,  Spermatic. 
Cceliac  Axis.    \    Hepatic.        Inferior  Mesenteric. 

i  Splenic.         8  I^umbar. 
Superior  Mesenteric.  Sacra  Media. 

2  Supra-renal.  2  Common  Iliac. 

2  Renal. 

Describe  the  Coronary  Arteries.  They  are  2 
in  number,  a  right  and  a  left,*  arise  from  the  aorta 
behind  the  semilunar  valves  and  run  in  the  ver- 
tical grooves  of  the  heart,  the  left  artery  in  front,  to 
supply  the  tissue  of  that  organ. 

Describe  the  Innominate,^  It  arises  from  the 
summit  of  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  is  i^  inch  long, 
and  divides  behind  the  right  sterno-clavicular  joint 
into  the  Right  Common  Carotid^  and  Right  Subcla- 
vian? these  arteries  on  the  left  side  of  the  body  aris- 
ing directly  from  the  arch  of  the  aorta.^"  ^^  It  some- 
times sends  off  a  Middle  Thyroid  (artery  of 
Neibauhr)  which  may  arise  directly  from  the 
arch  of  the  aorta.  The  innominate  is  sometimes 
absent,  and  not  infrequently  varies  in  length  from 
an  inch  to  two  or  more. 

Describe  the  Common  Carotid.  Arising  differently  (see  above),  the  two 
carotids  are  similarly  described,  except  that  the  left  is  longer  and  deeper  than 
the  right  one.  Their  course  is  indicated  by  a  line  drawn  from  a  point  midway 
between  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  mastoid  process  to  the  sterno- 
clavicular articulation.  At  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  they  are  separated  only 
by  the  width  of  the  trachea,  and  they  are  each  contained  in  a  sheath  of  the 
deep  cervical  fascia  with  the  internal  jugular  vein  externally  and  the  pneumo- 
gastric  nerve  between  the  artery  and  vein.  On  the  front  oT  the  sheath  lies  the 
descendens  noni  nerve  (descending  branch  of  the  9th  or  hypoglossal).  The 
artery  lies  beneath  the  inner  border  of  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle,  and  is 
crossed  about  its  middle  by  the  omohyoid  muscle  and  the  middle  thyroid  vein. 


104 


ANATOMY. 


It  is  also  crossed  above  by  the  facial,  lingual,  and  superior  thyroid  veins,  belmv 
by  the  anterior  jugular  vein,  and  on  the  left  side  often  by  the  internal  jugular 
vein.  It  bifurcates,  at  the  level  of  the  upper  border  of  the  thyroid  cartilage, 
into  the  External  and  Internal  Carotids^  of  which  the  internal  is  the  most  re- 
mote from  the  median  line. 

Name  the   Branches  and   Sub-branches  of  the  External  Carotid  Ar- 
tery.'^ (Fig-  55-)     It  has  8  branches,  as  follows,  viz. — 

Superior  Thyroid,^  arising  below  the  greater  cornu  of  the  hyoid  bone. 
Muscular.  Hyoid.  Superior  Lai"yngeal. 

Glandular.  Superficial  Descending.  Crico-thyroid. 

Lingual,^  under  the  hyo-glossus  muscle  to  the  tongue. 
Hyoid.         Dorsalis  Linguae.         Sublingual.         Ranine. 

Fig.  56. 


Facial,^  crosses  the  lower  jaw  at  the  anterior  angle  of  the  masseter. 
Inferior  or  Ascending  Palatine.         Submental.'  2  Coronary.^^ 

Tonsillar.  Muscular.  Lateralis  Nasi. 

Submaxillary.  Inferior  Labial.       Angular. 


THE   ARTIiRIES.  105 

Occipital^^  lies  in  the  occipital  groove  of  the  temporal  bone. 

Muscular.  Inferior  Meningeal.  Cranial  Branches,  over 

Auricular.  Arteria  Princeps  Cervicis.^'  the  occiput. 

Posterior  Auricular^^  ascends  under  cover  of  the  parotid  gland.  _ 

Stylo-mastoid.  Auricular.  Muscular.  Glandular. 

Ascending  Pharyngeal,  lies  on  the  rectus  capitis  anticus  major. 

External  Branches.  Pharyngeal  and  Meningeal  Branches. 

Temporal}^  the  smallest  of  the  termini  of  the  external  carotid,  begins  in 
the  parotid  gland,  crosses  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  divides  into  anterior  ^^ 
and  posterior  temporal. ^^ 

Transverse  Facial.^^       Middle  Temporal. '''       Anterior  Auricular. 
Internal  Alaxillary,^  the  other  terminal   branch  of  the   external  carotid,* 
is  divided  into  three  portions,  Maxillary,*  Pterygoid,^  and  Spheno-maxil- 
lary,^  which  respectively  give  off  the  following  branches:   (Fig.  56.) 
Deep  Auricular,  to  the        Deep  Temporal,  Alveolar.** 

tragus  and  canal.  ant.  and  posterior.    Infra-orbital.*^ 

Tympanic,^  entering  Pterygoid  Branches,    Descending  Palatine.*' 

the  Glaserian  fissure.  to  those  muscles.      Vidian.*^ 

Middle  Meningeal.^  Masseteric,  to  the         Pterygo-palatine.** 

Small  Meningeal.^  masseter  muscle.      Spheno-palatine  or  Nasal.** 

Inferior  Dental ,*<>  divides    Buccal,  to  the  bucci- 

into  Incisor  and  Mental.  nator  muscle. 
Describe  the  Internal  Carotid  Artery.  It  ascends  in  front  of  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  three  upper  cervical  vertebrae,  and  close  to  the  tonsil,  traverses 
the  carotid  canal  in  the  temporal  bone,  and  after  piercing  the  dura  mater  by  the 
anterior  clinoid  process,  divides  into  its  terminal  branches.  Its  branches  are 
the 

Tympanic,  enters  the  tympanum  from  the  carotid  canal,  and  anastomoses 
on  the  membrana  tympani  with  the  tympanic  branch  of  the  internal  max- 
illary, the  stylo-mastoid,  and  the  Vidian  arteries. 
Af'teria  Peceptaculi,  numerous  small  vessels  going  to  the  walls  of  the  sinuses, 
the  Gasserian  ganglion  and  the  pituitary  body ;  one  of  them,  to  the  dura 
mater,  is  called  the  Anterior  Meningeal. 
Ophthalmic,  arises  from  the  cavernous  portion,  enters  the  orbit  through  the 
optic  foramen,  terminating  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye  into  the  frontal 
and  nasal  branches.     It  gives  off, — 

Lachrymal.  Short  Ciliary.  Anterior  Ethmoidal. 

Arteria  Centralis  Retinae.    Anterior  Ciliary.  Palpebral. 

Muscular  Branches.  Supraorbital.  Nasal. 

Long  Ciliary.  Posterior  Ethmoidal.        Frontal. 

Anterior  Cerebral,  joined  to  its  fellow  by  the  anterior  communicating  branch, 
about  2  lines  long. 


106 


Fig.  57. 


Middle  Cerebral,  in  the  fissure  of  Sylvius ;   divides  into  3  branches,  anterior, 

median,  and  posterior. 
Anterior  Choroid,  to  the  choroid  plexus,  corpus  fimbriatum,  etc. 
Posterior  Communicating,  anastomoses  with  the  posterior  cerebral,  a  branch 

of  the  basilar. 

What  is  the  Circle  of  Willis?  An  anastomosis  at  the  base  of  the  brain, 
between  the  branches  of  the  internal  carotid  and  vertebral  arteries,  to  equalize 
the  cerebral  circulation.  The  2  Vertebral  arteries  join  to  form  the  Basilar, 
which  ends  in  2  Posterior  Cerebral.  These  are  connected  with  the  Internal 
Carotid  by  the  2  Posterior  Commztnicating.  The  circle  is  completed  by  the 
connection  of  the  2  Anterior  Cerebral  branches  of  the  internal  carotid  through 
the  short  Anterior  Communicating  artery. 

Describe  the  Subclavian.     It  arises  on  the  right  side  from  the  innominate, 

on  the  left  side  from  the  arch  of  the  aorta, 
and  is  divided  into  3  portions  by  the 
scalenus  anticus,  which  crosses  it  just  ex- 
ternal to  the  origin  of  the  thyroid  axis, 
viz. — the  parts  internal,  behind,  and  ex- 
ternal to  that  muscle.  At  the  outer  border 
of  the  1st  rib,  the  subclavian  becomes  the 
axillaiy  artery.  Its  upper  border  is  a  little 
above  the  clavicle,  and  it  is  separated  from 
the  subclavian  vein  by  the  scalenus  anticus 
at  its  origin  from  the  first  rib.  Its  branches 
are  all  given  oft'  from  its  first  portion,  ex- 
cept the  Superior  Intercostal,  which  on 
the  right  side  arises  from  the  second  por- 
tion. 

Vertebral^  passing  up  the  neck,  through 
the   foramina   in   the   transverse   pro- 
cesses of  six    cervical   vertebrae,  and    enters  the   skull   by  the   foramen 
magnum,  where   it  joins   its   fellow   to   form    the  Basilar  Artery,      Its 
branches  are — 

Lateral  Spinal  Branches.  Anterior  Spinal. 

Muscular  Branches.  Posterior  Spinal. 

Posterior  Meningeal.  Inferior  Cerebellar. 

The  Basilar,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  vertebrals,  gives  off"  on  each 
side  a  transverse,  anterior,  and  superior  cerebellar,  and  ends  in  the  two 
posterior  cerebral.     (See  Circle  of  Willis,  above.) 


THE   ARTERIES.  107 

Thyroid  Axis,^  at  once  divides  into  the  three  following  branches: — 
Inferior  Thyroid^  to  the  thyroid  gland,  giving  off, — 

Laryngeal  Branch.  CEsophageal  Branches. 

Tracheal  Branches.  Ascending  Cervical." 

Transversalis  Colli}^  divides  beneath  the  margin  of  the  trapezius  into — 

Superficial  Cervical.  Posterior  Scapular. 

Suprascapular y^  to  the  shoulder-joint  and  the  dorsum  of  the  scapula,  anas- 
tomosing there  with  the  posterior  and  subscapular. 
Internal  Mammary}^  arises  opposite  the  thyroid  axis,  descends  upon  the 
costal  cartilages,  and  ends  at  the  6th  interval,  in  the  musculo-phrenic  and 
superior  epigastric,  the  latter  anastomosing  with  the  deep  epigastric  branch 
of  the  external  iliac.     Its  branches  are  the — 

Comes  Nervi  Phrenici,         Pericardiac.  Perforating. 

or  Superior  Phrenic.         Sternal.  Musculo-phrenic. 

Mediastinal.  Anterior  Intercostal.       Superior  Epigastric. 

Superior  Intercostal}^  gives  ofif  branches  in  the  intercostal  spaces  to  the 
posterior  spinal  muscles  and  to  the  spinal  cord. 

Profunda  Cervicis  *®  supplies  the  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  neck, 
and  anastomoses  with  the  arteria  princeps  cervicis  of  the  occi- 
pital. 

Describe  the  Axillary .^  It  is  the  continuation  of  the  subclavian,  extend- 
ing from  the  edge  of  the  1st  rib  to  the  lower  margin  of  the  armpit  muscles, 
where  it  becomes  the  brachial.     It  has  7  branches,  viz. — 

Superior  Thoracic ^  to  the  pectoral  muscles  and  walls  of  the  thorax. 
Acro7nial  Thoracic,  branches  are  thoracic,  acromial,  descending. 
Thoracica  Tonga,  to  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  mammary  gland. 
Thoracica  Alaris,  a  small  branch  to  the  axillary  glands. 
Subscapular,  to  the  inferior  dorsum  of  the  scapula.    Its  branches  anastomose 
with  the  supra-  and  posterior  scapular,  and  are  the — 

Subscapular.  Dorsalis  Scapulae.  Median  Branch. 

Posterior  CircumJIex,  to  the  deltoid  muscle  and  the  shoulder-joint. 
Anterior  Circumjlex,  to  the  joint  and  the  head  of  the  bone,  anastomosing 
with  the  posterior  circumflex  and  acromial  thoracic. 

Describe  the  Brachial.  It  is  the  continuation  of  the  axillary  from  the 
lower  margin  of  the  teres  major  tendon  to  its  bifurcation  into  the  radial  and 
ulnar,  which  is  usually  about  one-half  inch  below  the  bend  of  the  elbow. 
The  median  nerve  crosses  it  from  the  outside  to  the  inside  at  its  centre.  Its 
branches  are  the — 

Superior  Profunda,  winds  over  the  arm  in  the  musculo-spiral  groove,  giving 
off  the  posterior  articular  to  the  elbow  anastomosis. 


108  ANATOMY. 

Nutrient  Branch,  enters  the  nutrient  canal. 

Inferior  Profunda,  to  the  elbow-joint  anastomosis. 

Anastoniotica  Magna,  anastomoses  with  the  posterior  articular,  inferior  pro- 
funda, anterior  and  posterior  ulnar  recurrent. 

Muscular  Branches,  to  the  muscles  in  the  course  of  the  artery. 

Describe  the  Radial.  It  extends  from  the  bifurcation  of  the  brachial  to  the 
deep  palmar  arch,  and  gives  off  the  following  branches  respectively,  in  the  fore- 
arm, the  wrist,  and  the  hand,  viz. — 

Radial  Recurrent.  Posterior  Carpal.  Princeps  Pollicis. 

Muscular.  Metacarpal.  Radialis  Indicis. 

Superficialis   Voice,  Dorsalis  Pollicis.  Perforantes. 

Anterior  Carpal.  Dorsalis  Indicis.  InterossecE. 

Name  the  Branches  of  the  Ulnar.  It  extends  from  the  division  of  the 
brachial  to  the  superficial  palmar  arch.     It  has  8  branches,  viz. — 

Anterior  Ulnar  Recurrent.  Muscular.  Deep  or  Communicating 

Posterior  Ulnar  Recurrent.  Anterior  Carpal.        Branch. 

Interosseous  \  .   '  Posterior  Carpal.  Digital. 

I  Posterior.  ^  ^ 

Describe  the  Palmar  Arches.  The  Superficial  Pahnar  Arch  is  that  part 
of  the  ulna  artery  lying  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  anastomosing  with 
the  superficialis  volse  from  the  radial,  and  a  branch  from  the  radialis  indicis,  at 
the  root  of  the  thumb.  It  gives  off  4  branches,  the  digital,  to  the  sides  of  the 
fingers,  except  the  inside  of  the  index  finger,  which  is  supplied  by  the  radialis 
indicis.  The  Deep  Palmar  Arch  is  formed  by  the  palmar  portion  of  the  radial 
artery  anastomosing  with  the  deep  or  communicating  branch  of  the  ulna.  It 
gives  off  the  radialis  indicis,  palmar  interossese,  perforating  and  recurrent 
branches. 

Describe  the  Thoracic  Aorta.  It  begins  on  the  left  of  the  spine,  at  the 
lower  border  of  the  3d  dorsal  vetebra,  and  ends  at  the  aortic  opening  in  the 
diaphragm  directly  in  front  of  the  last  dorsal  vertebra.  Its  branches  are  as 
follows  : — 

Pericardiac  Branches,  irregular  in  number  and  origin. 

Bronchial,  also  vary  in  number  and  origin ;  generally  one  on  the  right  side 
and  two  on  the  left.     They  nourish  the  lungs. 

CEsophageal,  4  or  5,  anastomose  on  the  oesophagus  with  branches  of  the  in- 
ferior thyroid,  phrenic,  and  gastric. 

Posterior  Mediastinal,  numerous  small  vessels. 

Intercostals,  usually  10  on  each  side,  each  dividing  into  an  anterior  and  a 
posterior  branch.  The  anterior  divides  again  into  two  along  the  adjacent 
borders  of  the  ribs,  supplying  the  intercostal  muscles  and  anastomosing  with 


THE    ARTERIES, 


109 


branches  of  the  internal  mammary  and  axillary 
into  a  spinal  branch  going  to 
the  vertebrae  and  the  spinal 
cord,  and  a  muscular  to  the 
muscles  of  the  back. 


Describe  the  Abdominal 
Aorta.  It  begins  where  the 
thoracic  ends,  and  terminates  at 
the  4th  lumbar  vertebra  in  the 
common  iliacs.  Its  branches  are 
as  follows : — 

CCELIAC    Axis,2   arises    oppo- 
site the  margin  of  the  dia- 
phragm, runs    forwards   for 
half    an    inch   and   divides 
into    the    Gastric,    Hepatic, 
and    Splenic  arteries,  occa- 
sionally giving   off   one  of 
the  phrenics. 
Gastric^  supplies  the  stomach 
along    its    lesser   curvature, 
anastomosing  with  the  aortic, 
oesophageal,  splenic,  and  he- 
patic branches. 
Hepatic,^  divides  in  the  trans- 
verse fissure  of  the  liver  into 
the  right  and  left  branches, 
to  the  lobes  of  that  organ ; 
also  the — 
Pyloric. 
Cystic. 


The  posterior  divides 


Fig.  58. 


„     ,      J      J       ,.    I  Gastro-epiploica  Dextra, 
Gastro-duodenali=  ^  ■   ^  ^ 


lis/ 


Pancreatico-duodenalis. 
Splenic,^  the  largest  branch  of  the  coeliac  axis,  passes  by  a  very  tortuous 
course  to  the  spleen,  giving  off  the  following : — 
Pancreaticae  Parvse.  Gastric  (vasa  brevia). 

Pancreatica  Magna.  Gastro-epiploica  Sinistra. 

Phrenic}  one  on  each  side,  but  usually  only  one  arises  from  the  aorta,  the 
other  springing  from  either  the  coeliac  axis  or  the  renal  artery.     They  go 
to  the  under  surface  of  the  diaphragm, 
Superior  Mesenteric,^  supplies  the  small  intestine,  caecum,  ascending  and 
10 


110  ANATOMY. 

transverse  colon.     Arising  about  one-fourth  inch  below  the  coeliac  axis, 

it  arches  forwards,  downwards,  and  to  the  left,  giving  off — 
Inferior  Pancreatico  duodenal.  Ileo-colic. 

Vasa  Inteslini  Tenuis.  Colica  Dextra  and  Media. 

Inferior  Mesenteric}^  supplies  the  descending  colon,  sigmoid  flexure,  and 

most  of  the  rectum,  giving  off  the  following  branches : — 

Colica  Sinistra.  Sigmoid.  Superior  Hemorrhoidal. 

Stipra-renal^  arise  one  on  each  side,  opposite  the  origin  of  the  superior 

mesenteric,  passing  to  the  supra-renal  capsules. 
Renal}  one  from  each  side,  just  below  the  preceding,  pass  to  the  kidney,  at 

the  hilum  having  the  middle  place  between  the  ureter  behind  and  the 

renal  vein  in  front.     U.  A.  V.  (you  'ave!) 
Spermatic}^  one  on  each  side,  in  the  male  through  the  inguinal  canal  to 

the  testes;  in  the  female  to  the  ovaries,  uterus,  and  the  skin  of  the  labia 

and  groins. 
Lumbar}^  usually  4  on  each  side,  analogous  to  the  intercostals.     They  each 

divide  into  two  branches,  the — 

Dorsal,  giving  off  a  spinal  branch.  Abdominal.     . 

Middle  Sacral}"^  arises  just  at  the  bifurcation  of  the  aorta ;  it  descends  along 

the  sacrum  and  coccyx,  giving  off  numerous  branches. 

Describe  the  Common  Iliac  Arteries.  They  extend  from  the  bifurcation 
of  the  aorta  at  the  4th  lumbar  vertebra  to  near  the  lumbo-sacral  articulation, 
where  they  each  divide  into  the  external '^  and  internal  iliac, ^*  They  are 
about  2  inches  in  length,  the  right  being  a  little  longer  than  the  left  one,  and 
each  is  crossed  by  the  ureter,  just  before  its  bifurcation. 

Describe  the  Internal  Iliac.'*  It  is  about  i^  inches  long,  and  extends 
from  the  lumbo-sacral  articulation  to  the  great  sacro-sciatic  notch,  where  it 
divides  into  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  trunk.  From  the  anterior  trunk  are 
given  off  from  above  downwards,  the  — 

Superior  Vesical,  the  remaining  pervious  part  of  the  foetal  hypogastric  arteiy. 
It  sends  branches  to  the  vas  deferens  and  the  ureter ;  and  one,  the  Middle 
Vesical,  to  the  base  of  the  bladder. 
Obturator,  through  the  canal  in  the  obturator  foramen  to  the  thigh,  where  it 
divides  into  an  internal  and  external  branch.  Within  the  pelvis  it  gives 
off  an  iliac,  vesical,  and  a  pubic  branch.  In  one  out  of  3j^  cases  this 
artery  arises  from  the  epigastric. 
Inferior  Vesical,  to  the  bladder,  prostate  gland,  and  vesiculae  seminales.     In 

the  female  this  artery  is  called  the  Vaginal. 
Middle  Hemorrhoidal,  to  the  rectum. 
Uterine,  in  the  female,  anastomosing  with  the  ovarian. 


THE    ARTERIES.  Ill 

Internal  Pudic,  the  smaller  of  the  terminal  branches  of  the  anterior  trunk, 
supplies  the  external  generative  organs.  Its  branches  in  the  pelvis  are 
numerous  and  small,  in  the  perineum  they  are — 

Inferior  Hemorrhoidal.  Artery  of  the  Bulb. 

Superficial  Perineal.  Artery  of  the  Corpus  Cavernosum. 

Transverse  Perineal.  Dorsal  Artery  of  the  Penis. 

Sciatic,  the  other  terminal  branch,  supplies  the  muscles  on  the  back  of  the 
pelvis.     Its  branches  are  as  follows : — 

Muscular  Branches.  Coccygeal.  Muscular,  external 

Hemorrhoidal  Branches,    Inferior  Gluteal.  to  the  pelvis. 

Vesical  Branches.  Comes  Nervi  Ischiadic!.    Articular  Branches. 

The  Posterior  Trunk  gives  off  the  following : — 
Ilio-luinbar,  dividing  into  lumbar  and  iliac  branches. 
Lateral  Sacral,  superior  and  inferior  on  each  side. 

Gluteal,  the  continuation  of  the  posterior  trunk,  divides  into  a  superficial  and 
a  deep  branch,  to  the  glutei  muscles,  the  skin  over  the  sacrum,  and  the 
hip  joint.  Before  dividing,  it  gives  a  nutrient  branch  to  the  ilium,  and 
some  muscular  branches. 

Describe  the  External  Iliac.  It  extends  to  beneath  the  centre  of  Poupart's 
ligament,  where  it  enters  the  thigh  and  becomes  the  Femoral  Artery,  lying  be- 
tween the  femoral  vein  on  the  inside  and  the  anterior  crural  nerve  on  the  out- 
side— V.A.N.     Its  branches  are,  small  muscular  and  glandular,  and — 

Epigastric,  which  usually  arises  a  few  lines  above  Poupart's  ligament,  passes 
between  the  peritoneum  and  the  transversalis  fascia,  to  the  sheath  of  the 
rectus  which  it  perforates,  and  ascends  behind  that  muscle,  to  anastomose 
by  numerous  branches  with  the  terminal  branches  of  the  internal  mam- 
mary and  inferior  intercostal.     It  gives  off — 

Cremasteric.  Pubic.  Muscular  Branches. 

Circiuiiflex  Iliac,  arises  opposite  to  the  epigastric,  passes  along  the  crest  of 
the  ilium  to  anastomose  with  the  ilio-lumbar,  gluteal,  lumbar,  and  epigas- 
tric arteries. 

Describe  the  Femoral  Artery.  It  extends  from  Poupart's  ligament  to  the 
opening  in  the  adductor  magnus,  where  it  becomes  the  popliteal  artery.  Its 
course  corresponds  to  a  line  drawn  from  a  point  midway  between  the  anterior 
superior  spine  of  the  ilium  and  the  symphysis  pubis,  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
inner  condyle  of  the  femur.  It  lies  in  a  strong  fibrous  sheath  with  the  femoral 
vein,  but  divided  from  the  latter  by  a.  fibrous  partition.  It  bisects  Scarpa's 
triangle  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  where  it  is  superficial,  and  rests  'on  the 
inner  margin  of  the  psoas,  which  separates  it  from  the  capsule  of  the  hip-joint. 
Its  branches  are  as  follows :  — 


112 


ANATOMY. 


Fig.  59. 


Superficial  EpigostHc,c  to  the  superficial  fascia  of  the  abdomen. 

Superficial  Circumflex  Iliac^J  to  the  skin 
over  the  iliac  crest. 

Superficial  External  Pudic,d  to  the  integu- 
ment of  the  lower  abdomen,  penis,  and 
scrotum. 

Deep  External  Fudic,(i  to  the  skin  of  the 
scrotum  and  perineum. 

Profunda  Femoris,^  arises  posteriorly  about 
I  or  2  inches  below  Poupart's  liga- 
ment, and  descends  to  the  lower  third  of 
the  back  of  the  thigh,  giving  oft'  the  fol- 
lowing branches : — 

Ext.  Circumflex. ;r     Int.  Circumflex. y 
3  Perforating.-^ 

Muscular  Branches,  k  to  the  sartorius  and 
vastus  internus. 

Anastomotic  a  Magna,  arises  from  the  femo- 
ral in  Hunter's  canal,  and  divides  into  a 
superficial  and  deep  branch,  the  latter 
anastomosing  around  the  knee-joint  with 
the  superior  external  and  internal  articu- 
lar arteries,  and  the  recurrent  tibia. 

Describe   the   Popliteal   Artery.     It  extends 
from  the  opening  in  the  adductor  magnus  to  the 
lower   border   of  the   popliteus   muscle,  where, 
having  passed  behind  the  knee-joint,  it  divides  into  the  anterior  and  posterior 
tibial  arteries.     Its  branches  are  as  follows  : — 
Superior  Muscular  Branches. 
Inferior  Muscular,  or  Sural. 
Cutaneous  Branches. 
Superior  External  Articular. 
These  are  distributed  around  the  knee-joint  in  a  free  anastomosis. 
The  azygos  branch  perforates  the  posterior  ligament  of  the  joint  to  reach  the 
internal  ligaments  and  the  synovial  membrane. 

Describe  the  Anterior  Tibial  Artery.  It  extends  from  the  bifurcation 
of  the  popliteal  to  the  front  of  the  ankle-joint,  where  it  becomes  the  Dorsalis 
Pedis.  It  passes  between  the  two  heads  of  the  tibialis  posticus,  over  the  upper 
edge  of  the  interosseus  membrane  and   along  its  anterior  surface,  resting  on 


Superior  Internal  Articular.l 
Azygos  Articular. 
Inferior  External  Artictilar. 
Inferior  Internal  Articular. 


THE   ARTERIES.  113 

the  tibia  for  its  lower  one-third.  It  is  accompanied  by  the  anterior  tibial  nerve 
close  to  it  externally,  and  is  crossed  below  by  the  tendon  of  the  extensor  pro- 
prius  pollicis.     Its  branches  are — 

Recurrent  Tibial.         Muscular.         External  and  Internal  Malleolar. 

Describe  the  Dorsalis  Pedis  Artery.  It  is  the  continuation  of  the  ante- 
rior tibial,  extending  from  the  front  of  the  ankle-joint  to  the  ist  interosseous 
space,  where  it  terminates  in  the  Dorsalis  Hallucis  and  the  Communicating. 
The  anterior  tibial  nerve  lies  close  to  its  outer  side.  Its  branches  are  as 
follows  : — 

Tarsea,  passing  outwards  along  the  tarsus. 

Metatarsea,  giving  off  3  interossese,  and  they  7  digital. 

DorsaWs  Hallucis,  to  the  great  toe  and  the  inner  side  of  the  second  toe  by 
its  3  digital  branches. 

Communicating,  which  dips  down  into  the  sole  of  the  foot  in  the  1st  inter- 
osseous space  of  the  metatarsus,  to  inosculate  with  the  external  plantar; 
and  gives  off  2  digital  branches  to  the  plantar  surface  of  the  great  and 
second  toes. 

Describe  the  Posterior  Tibial  Artery.  It  is  a  large  vessel,  extending 
from  the  bifurcation  of  the  popliteal  along  the  back  of  the  tibia  to  the  fossa 
below  the  inner  malleolus,  where  it  divides  into  the  Internal  and  External 
Plantar.  The  posterior  tibial  nerve  crosses  it  a  short  way  below  its  origin  and 
then  lies  close  to  its  outer  side  for  the  rest  of  its  course.  Its  branches  are  as 
follows : — 

Peroneal,  along  the  fibular  side,  giving  off  the  anterior  peroneal,  muscular 
branches,  and  the  nutrient  artery  of  the  fibula. 

Nutrient  of  the  Tibia,  the  largest  nutrient  artery  of  bone. 

Muscular  Branches,  to  the  posterior  muscles  of  the  leg. 

Communicating,  a  branch  to  the  peroneal  artery. 

Internal  Calcanean  Branches,  to  the  heel  and  sole  of  the  foot. 

Describe  the  Internal  Plantar.  This  artery  is  the  smallest  of  the  termi- 
nating branches  of  the  posterior  tibial,  and  passes  along  the  inner  side  of  the 
foot  and  great  toe. 

Describe  the  External  Plantar  Artery.  It  sweeps  across  the  plantar 
aspect  of  the  foot  in  a  curve,  the  convexity  of  which  is  directed  outwards  and 
forwards;  and  at  the  interval  between  the  bases  of  the  ist  and  2d  metatarsal 
bones  it  inosculates  with  the  communicating  branch  from  the  dorsalis  pedis, 
forming  the  Plantar  Arch,  or  the  Stirrup  Anastomosis.  It  gives  off  numerous 
muscular  branches,  and  the — 

Posterior  Perforating,  3  small  branches  passing  through  the  3  outer  interos- 
seous spaces. 

10*  H 


114  ANATOMY. 

Digital,  4  branches  supplying  the  sides  of  the  3  outer  toes  and  the  outer 
side  of  the  2d  toe  ;  its  inner  side,  together  with  the  great  toe,  being  sup- 
])lied  by  the  Digital  Branches  of  the  Doisalis  Pedis  Communicating. 

Describ2  the  Pulmonary  Artery.  It  alone  of  the  arteries  carries  venous 
blood,  which  it  conveys  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart  to  the  lungs.  It  is 
only  about  2  inches  long,  and  nearly  all  within  the  pericardium ;  arising  from 
the  right  ventricle  in  front  of  the  ascending  aorta,  passing  upwards  and  back- 
wards to  the  under  surface  of  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  where  it  bifurcates,  and  is 
connected  to  the  aorta  by  a  fibrous  cord,  the  remains  of  the  ductus  arteriosus 
of  the  foetus.     Its  terminal  branches  are  the — 

Right  and  Left  Pulmonary  Arteries,  the  latter  being  the  shorter  of  the  two; 
pass  horizontally  outwards  to  the  roots  of  their  respective  lungs,  where  each 
divides  into  two  branches,  which  again  and  again  subdivide  to  ramify  through- 
out the  lung  tissue  and  end  in  the  capillaries  of  those  organs. 

ARTERIAL    ANASTOMOSES. 

Describe  the  AnaEtomosis  around  th2  Shouldsr-joint.  It  is  formed  by 
the  following  8  arteries,  viz. — 

Posterior  Scapular^  br.  of  transv.  colli.  Suprascapular,  br.  of  thyroid  axis. 

Subscapular,  br,  of  axillary.  Ant.  Circumflex,  br.  of  axillaiy. 

Dorsalis  Scapula-,  br.  of  subscapular.  Post.  Circumflex,  br.  of  axillary. 

Infraspinous,  br.  of  dorsalis  scapulae.  Acromial,  br.  of  acromio-thoracic. 

"What  Arteries  Anastomose  aroimd  the  Elbow-joint?     The — 
Superior  Profunda,  br.  of  brachial.  Radial  Recurrent,  br.  of  radial. 

Inferior  Profunda,  br.  of  brachial.  Recurrent  Interosseous,  br.  of  posterior 

Anastomotica  Magna,  br.  of  brachial.  interosseous. 

Posterior  Articular^  br.   of   superior      Anterior  Ulnar  Recurrent,  br.  of  ulnar, 
profunda.  Posterior  Ulnar  Recurrent,  br.  of  ulnar. 

What  Arteries  Anastomose  around  the  Hip-joint  ?     They  are  the 
Gluteal,  Iliolumbar,  and  Circumflex  Iliac,  with  the  External  Circumflex. 
Obturator  and  Sciatic,  with  the  Internal  Circumflex. 
Comes  Nervt  Ischiadici,  with  the  Perforating  branches  of  the  Profunda. 

Name  the  Arteries  Anastomosing  around  the  Knee-joint.     The — 
Descending,  br.  of  ext.  circumflex.  Sup.  Int.  Artiatlar,  br.  of  popliteal. 

Anastomotica  Magna,  br.  of  femoral.       Inf.  Ext,  Articular,  br.  of  popliteal. 
Inferior  Perforating,  br.  of  profunda.     Inf.  Int.  Articular,  br.  of  popliteal. 
Superior  Ext.  Articular, hx.  of  popliteal.  Recurrent  Tibial,  br.  of  anterior  tibial. 

How  is  the  Collateral  Circulation  established  after  Ligature  of  the 
Carotid  or  Subclavian?     By  the  following  anastomoses,  viz. — 

Superior  Thyroid,  br.  of  external  carotid,  with  the  Inferior  Thyroid,  br.  of 
the  thyroid  axis,  from  the  subclavian. 


THE    VEINS.  115 

Arteria  Princeps  Cervicis,  ht.  of  occipital,  from  the  external  carotid,  with 
the  Vertebral,  br.  of  subclavian,  and  the  Profunda  Cervicis,  br.  of  the 
superior  intercostal,  from  the  subclavian. 

What  is  the  Longest  Anastomosis  in  the  Body?  That  between  the 
subclavian  and  the  external  iliac  by  the  anastomosis  of  the  Superior  Epigastric, 
br.  of  the  internal  mammary,  with  the  Deep  Epigastric,  br.  of  the  external 
iliac. 

[The  circle  of  Willis  has  been  described  on  page  io6 ;  the  palmar  and  plantar 
arches  on  pages  io8  and  113  respectively;  and  the  anastomosis  on  the  mem- 
brana  tympani  on  page  105.] 

THE   VEINS. 

What  are  the  Veins  ?  Vessels  carrying  blood  towards  the  heart.  Their 
walls  are  composed  of  3  coats,  an  internal,  serous ;  a  middle,  muscular ;  and 
an  external,  fibrous.  They  all  carry  carbonized  or  venous  blood,  except  the 
pulmonary  veins,  which  bring  oxygenated  blood  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 
The  deep  veins  accompany  the  arteries,  generally  jn  the  same  sheath,  and  are 
given  the  same  names.  The  secondary  arteries,  as  the  radial,  ulnar,  brachial, 
etc.,  have  each  two  veins,  called  Venc£  Comites.  The  superficial  veins  are 
usually  unaccompanied  by  arteries,  and  lie,  as  a  rule,  between  the  layers  of 
the  superficial  fascia,  terminating  in  the  deep  veins.  Many  veins  are  so  irreg- 
ular in  their  origin  that  they  cannot  be  accurately  described;  they  all  anasto- 
mose with  each  other  much  more  freely  than  do  the  arteries. 

What  are  Sinuses  ?  They  are  venous  channels,  differing  from  veins  in 
structure,  but  answering  the  same  purpose.  Those  of  the  cranium  are  formed 
by  the  separation  of  the  layers  of  the  dura  mater. 

How  are  the  Veins  divided  ?  Into  the  Pulmonary,  Systemic,  and  Portal 
Systems ;  the  latter  being  an  appendage  of  the  systemic,  its  capillaries  rami- 
fying in  the  liver. 

What  Veins  have  no  Valves?  The  venae  cavce,  hepatic,  portal,  renal, 
uterine,  ovarian,  cerebral,  spinal,  pulmonary,  umbilical,  and  the  very  small 
veins. 

Name  the  principal  Veins  of  the  Head  and  Neck.     They  are  the — 
(i.)  Exterior  veins.  (2.)  Veins  of  the  diploe  and  cranium. 

Eacial.  Veins  of  the  Diploe.  Transverse  Sinus. 

Temporal.  Cerebral  and  Cerebellar.  Cavernous  Sinus, 

htternal  Maxillary,     Superior  Longitudinal  Sinus.      Occipital  Sinus. 
Temporo-maxillary.      Inferior  Longitudinal  Sinus.       Superior  Petrosal  Sinus. 
Posterior  Auricular.     Straight  Sinus.  Inferior  Petrosal  Sinus. 

Occipital.  Circular  Sinus.  Lateral  Sinus. 


116  ANATOMY. 

(3.)  Veins  of  the  neck  draining  the  above-named. 
External  yugtilar,^  terminating  in  the  subclavian  vein.* 
Posterior  External  Jugular,  opens  into  the  external  jugular. 
Anterior  Jugular^  enters  the  subclavian  vein  near  the  external  jugular. 
Internal  Jugular i"  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  twro  last-named  sinuses  at  the 
jugular  foramen,  and  uniting  with  the  subclavian  vein  to  form  the  innomi- 
nate, at  the  root  of  the  neck.     In  its  course  it  receives  the  facial,  lingual, 
pharyngeal,  superior  and  middle  thyroid  veins,  and  the  occipital. 
Vertebral,  descends  the  foramina  in  the  transverse  processes  of  the  cervical 
vertebrae,  and  empties  into  the  innominate  vein. 

Name  the  Veins  of  the  Upper  Extremity.  They  are  in  two  sets,  super- 
ficial and  deep.  The  deep  follow  the  arteries,  generally  as  vense  comites, 
beginning  in  the  hand  as  Digital,  Interocseous,  and  Palmar  veins,  they  unite 
in  the  Deep  Radial  and  Ulnar  which  unite  to  form  the  Vence  Comites  of  the 
brachial  artery  at  the  bend  of  the  elbow.  The  superficial  veins  lie  in  the 
superficial  fascia;  they  are  as  follows: — 

^^^^'^^ • \  Median  Cephalic.     Cephalic.  ,   .  ^,_  ,„„ 

Median f  f  Ax  llary 


1 


Anterior  and  Posterior  Ulnar ^  Median  Basilic.       Basilic.     '         ^^^• 

Name  the  principal  Veins  of  the  Thorax.     They  are  as  follows,  viz. — 
Internal  Mammary.  Bronchial.  Right  Azygos  [major). 

Inferior  Thyroid.  Mediastinal.  left  Lower  Azygos  {minor). 

Intercostal.  Pericardiac.  Left  Upper  Azygos  {minimus). 

What  are  the  Azygos  Veins  ?  They  supply  the  place  of  the  vense  cavse  in 
the  region  where  these  trunks  are  deficient,  being  connected  with  the  heart. 
7^1?  Right  Azygos^''  begins  by  a  branch  from  the  right  lumbar  veins  usually, 
passes  through  the  aortic  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  and  ends  in  the  superior 
vena  cava,  having  drained  9  or  lo  right  lower  intercostals,  the  vena  azygos 
minor,  the  right  bronchial,  oesophageal,  mediastinal,  and  vertebral  veins.  The 
Left  Lower  Azygos^^  begins  by  a  branch  from  the  left  lumbar  or  renal,  passes 
the  left  crus  of  the  diaphragm,  crosses  the  vertebral  column  and  ends  in  the 
right  azygos,  having  drained  4  or  5  lower  intercostals.  The  Left  Upper  Azygos 
drains  2  or  3  left  intercostals  and  empties  into  either  of  the  other  two.  It  is 
often  wanting,  its  place  being  filled  by  the  left  superior  intercostal  vein.^i 

Name  the  Spinal  Veins.  They  may  be  arranged  into  4  sets,  as  follows, 
viz. — 

Medulli-spinal,  the  veins  of  the  spinal  cord,  which  lie  in  plexus  form  between 
the  pia  mater  and  arachnoid.  They  unite  into  2  or  3  small  trunks  near 
the  base  of  the  skull,  which  terminate  in  the  inferior  cerebellar  veins  or 
in  the  petrosal  sinuses. 


THE  VEINS. 


117 


Fig.  6o. 


Vena  Basis  Vertebrarum,  empty  into  the  anterior  longitudinal. 
Longitudinal y  in  two  plexuses,  anterior  and  posterior,  running  the  whole 

length  of  the  spinal  canal.     The  posterior  join  the  dorsi- spinal  veins,  the 

anterior  empty  into  the  vertebral,  intercostal,  lumbar,  and  sacral  veins  in 

their  various  regions. 
Dorsi-spinal,   form    a   plexus    around    the 

spines,  processes,  and  laminae  of  all  the 

vertebrae.    They  empty  into  the  vertebral, 

intercostal,  lumbar,  and  sacral  veins  in 

their  respective  regions. 
Describe  the  Subclavian  Vein.  It  is  the 
continuation  of  the  axillary,  extending  from 
the  outer  margin  of  the  ist  rib  to  the  sterno- 
clavicular articulation,  where  it  unites  with  the 
internal  jugular  to  form  the  innominate  vein. 
At  the  angle  of  junction  enters  the  thoracic 
duct  on  the  left  side  of  the  body  and  the  right 
lymphatic  duct  on  the  right  side.  In  its  course 
it  receives  the  external  and  anterior  jugular 
veins  and  a  branch  from  the  cephalic. 

Describe  the  Venae  Innominatae.  The 
two  innominate  veins  are  each  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  subclavian  and  internal  jugular, 
and  unite  below  the  1st  costal  cartilage  to 
form  the  superior  vena  cava.  The  Right  In- 
nominate is  about  I  y^  inch  long,  and  receives, 
besides  its  constituent  branches,  the  right  in- 
ternal mammary,  right  inferior  thyroid,  and 
right  superior  intercostal  veins.  The  Left  In- 
nominate'^ is  about  3  inches  long,  and  in  its 
course  it  receives  the  vertebral,  inferior  thy- 
roid, internal  mammary,  and  superior  inter- 
costal veins  of  the  left  side. 

Describe  the  Superior  Vena  Cava.^  It  is 
a  short  trunk  about  2^  or  3  inches  in  length,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  venae 
innominatae,  and  receives  all  the  blood  from  the  upper  half  of  the  body,  termi- 
nating in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  It  is  half  covered  by  the  pericardium, 
and  receives  the  vena  azygos  major  and  small  pericardiac  and  mediastinal  veins. 

Name  the  Principal  Veins  of  the  Lower  Extremity.     They  are  in  two 
sets,  superficial  and  deep.     The  deep  are  the  Vena  Comites  of  the  anterior  and 


118  ANATOMY. 

posterior  tibial  and  peroneal  arteries,  which  collect  the  blood  from  the  deep 
parts  of  the  foot  and  leg,  and  unite  in  the — 

Popliteal,  which  becomes  the  Femoral,  and  it  the  External  Iliac  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  respectively-named  arteries. 
The  superficial  veins  of  the  lower  extremity  are  the — 

Internal  or  Long  Saphenous,  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  and  thigh,  enters  the 
femoral  at  the  saphenous  opening  i^  inch  below  Poupart's  ligament.  In 
its  course  it  receives  the  following : — 

Cutaneous  Branches.  Superficial  Circumflex  Iliac. 

Superficial  Epigastric.  Pudic.  Communicating  Branches. 

External  or  Short  Saphenous,  formed  by  branches  from  the  dorsum  and  outer 
side  of  the  foot,  it  ascends  behind  the  outer  malleolus,  up  the  middle  of 
the  back  of  the  leg,  and  empties  into  the  popliteal  vein. 

Describe  the  Internal  Iliac  Vein.'o  It  is  formed  by  the  venae  comites  of  the 
branches  of  tlie  internal  iliac  artery,  except  the  umbilical.  It  terminates  with 
the  external  iliac,  at  the  sacro-iliac  aiticulation,  to  form  the  common  iliac  vein. 
It  receives  the  following  veins  : — 

Gluteal.     Internal  Pudic.      Hemorrhoidal  and  Vesico-       Uterine  and  Vagi- 
Sciatic.       Obturator.  prostatic,  in  the  male.  nal  Plexuses,  in 

the  female. 
Describe  the  Common  Iliac  Veins.^^  They  are  each  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  two  iliac  veins  as  above  described,  and  unite  between  the  4th  and  5th 
lumbar  vertebrae  to  form  the  inferior  vena  cava,  the  right  common  iliac  being 
the  shortest  of  the  two.  Each  receives  the  Ilio-lumbar,  sometimes  the  Lateral 
Sacral,  and  the  left  one  in  addition  the  Middle  Sacral  Vein,  which  sometimes 
ends  in  the  vena  cava. 

Describe  the  Inferior  Vena  Cava.^  It  extends  from  the  junction  of  the  two 
common  iliac  veins,  passing  along  the  front  of  the  spine,  through  the  tendinous 
centre  of  the  diaphragm,  to  its  termination  in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 
It  receives  the  following  veins : — 

Lumbar}''-  Penal}^  Phrenic. 

Right  Spermatic}^  Supra-renal.  Hepatic}^ 

Describe  the  Portal  System.  The  portal  system  is  formed  by  the  Superior 
and  Inferior  Mesenteric,  Splenic,  and  Gastric  Veins,  which  collect  the  blood 
from  the  digestive  viscera,  and  by  their  union  behind  the  head  of  the  pan- 
creas form  the  Portal  Vein,  which  enters  the  transverse  fissure  of  the  liver, 
where  it  divides  into  2  branches,  and  these  again  subdivide,  ramifying  through- 
out that  organ,  therein  receiving  blood  also  from  the  branches  of  the  hepatic 
artery.  Its  contents  enter  the  inferior  vena  cava  by  the  hepatic  vein.  The 
portal  vein  is  about  4  inches  long,  receives  the  Gastric  and  Cystic  Veins,  and  is 


{ 


THE    ABSORUIINTS.  119 

formed  by  the  union  of  the  superior  mesenteric  and  splenic  veins,  the  inferior 
mesenteric  joining  the  splenic,  which  also  receives  one  of  the  gastric,  the  other 
emptying  into  the  portal. 

Name  the  Cardiac  Veins.  They  return  the  blood  from  the  tissue  of  the 
heart  into  the  right  auricle.     They  are  the — 

Great  Cardiac  Vein.  Anterior  Cardiac  Veins. 

Posterior  Cardiac  Vein.  Vencc  Thebesii, 

Coronary  Sinns,  is  a  dilatation  of  the  great  cardiac  vein,  receiving  the  pos- 
terior cardiac  and  an  oblique  vein  from  the  left  auricle. 

Describe  the  Pulmonary  Veins.  They  alone  of  the  veins  carry  arterial 
blood,  beginning  in  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs,  forming  a  single  trunk  for 
each  lobule,  which,  uniting  into  a  single  trunk  for  each  lobe,  form  two  main 
trunks  from  each  lung  which  open  separately  into  the  left  auricle.  Sometimes 
the  3  lobe-trunks  of  the  right  lung  remain  separate  to  their  termination  in  the 
auricle,  and  not  unfrequently  a  common  opening  serves  for  the  2  left  pulmo- 
nary veins, 

THE    ABSORBENTS. 

What  are  the  Lymphatics  ?  They  are  very  delicate,  transparent  vessels, 
formed  of  three  coats  like  arteries  and  veins,  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  the 
body,  except  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  eyeball,  cartilage,  tendons,  membranes  of 
the  ovum,  placenta,  umbilical  cord,  nails,  cuticle,  hair,  and  bone.  They  are 
nourished  by  nutrient  vessels,  and  have  valves,  but  no  nerves,  so  far  as  known. 
They  convey  lymph  to  the  blood. 

What  are  the  Lacteals  ?  They  are  the  lymphatics  of  the  small  intestine, 
conveying  the  chyle  therefrom  into  the  blood. 

What  are  the  Lymphatic  Glands?  Small  solid  bodies  placed  in  the 
course  of  the  absorbent  vessels,  and  found  chiefly  in  the  mesentery,  along  the 
great  blood-vessels,  in  the  mediastina,  axilla,  neck,  front  of  the  elbow,  groin, 
and  popliteal  space.  The  lymphatics  and  lacteals  before  entering  these  glands 
break  up  into  smaller  branches,  the  afferent  vessels,  which  form  a  plexus  in 
the  gland,  and  pass  out  as  efferent  vessels  to  unite  again  in  I  trunk.  They 
also  contain  spheroidal  bodies  about  ■^-^■^■^  inch  in  diameter.  These  glands 
are  named  after  the  regions  in  which  they  are  situated,  as  the  axillary,  inguinal, 
mesenteric,  etc. 

Describe  the  Thoracic  Duct.  It  is  the  main  channel  for  the  lymph  and 
chyle  from  the  whole  body  except  the  right  arm  and  lung,  right  side  of  the 
head,  heart,  neck,  and  thorax,  and  the  convex  surface  of  the  liver.  It  begins 
in  the  Receptaculum  Chyli,  in  front  of  the  2d  lumbar  vertebra,  passes  through 
the  aortic  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  and  at  the  upper  border  of  the  7th  cer- 


120  ANATOMY. 

vical  vertebra  it  curves  forwards,  outwards,  and  downwards,  terminating  in  the 
left  subclavian  vein  at  its  junction  with  the  internal  jugular. 

Describe  the  Right  Ljnnphatic  Duct.  It  is  about  an  inch  long,  termi- 
nating in  the  right  subclavian  vein  at  its  union  with  the  internal  jugular,  and 
draining  the  lymphatics  of  those  parts  which  are  not  connected  with  the  tho- 
racic duct. 

THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

How  is  the  Nervous  System  divided?  Into  the  Cerebrospinal,  or 
nervous  system  of  animal  life ;  and  the  Sympathetic,  or  nervous  system  of 
organic  life. 

What  is  the  Structure  of  the  Nervous  tissue  ?  It  is  formed  of  two 
substances  essentially  different  from  each  other,  the  White  or  fibrous,  and  the 
Gray  or  vesicular  matter.  Chemically  these  contain  phosphorized  fat,  albumen, 
and  water.  A  third  form,  the  Gelatinous,  is  yet  a  subject  of  disagreement 
among  authorities. 

Describe  the  White  Nerve-matter.  It  is  composed  of  a  number  of  tubes, 
each  consisting  of  a  central  Axis- cylinder,  surrounded  by  the  White  Substance 
of  Schwann,  and  this  again  enclosed  in  the  tuliular  membrane,  or  Nerve-sheath. 
The  whole  arrangement  is  precisely  analogous  to  that  of  a  submarine  telegraphic 
cable.  A  bundle  of  such  tubes  is  invested  by  a  covering,  the  Neurilenuna,  or 
perineurium,  and  is  called  a  N'erve,  and  is  nourished  by  a  minute  capillary 
system  of  blood-vessels. 

How  do  Nerves  terminate  ?  Sensory  nerves  end  peripherally  as  plexuses 
in  their  end-organs  in  the  tissues.  Motor  nerves  end  peripherally  in  muscles 
as  plexuses,  or  plates.     Their  central  termination  is  not  yet  understood. 

Of  what  does  the  Cerebro-spinal  system  consist?  Of  the  brain,  the 
spinal  cord,  the  ganglia,  and  the  cranial  and  spinal  nerves. 

THE   BRAIN. 

What  are  the  Membranes  of  the  Brain  ?  The  dura  mater,  the  arach- 
noid, and  the  pia  mater. 

Describe  the  Dura  Mater.  It  is  a  dense  fibrous  membrane  lining  the 
interior  of  the  skull,  and  forming  the  internal  periosteum  of  the  cranial  bones. 
It  is  continuous  with  the  dura  mater  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  is  attached  to 
many  parts  of  the  base  of  the  skull.  It  presents  the  following  for  exami- 
nation : — 

Falx  Cerebri,  an  arched  process  sent  into  the  longitudinal  fissure  of  the  brain, 
contains  in  its  upper  and  lower  margins  the  superior  and  inferior  longi- 
tudinal sinuses. 


THE   BRAIN.  121 

Tentorium  Cerebelli,  a  lamina  of  dura  mater  supporting  the  posterior  lobes  of 
the  brain,  and  covering  the  upper  surface  of  the  cerebellum.     It  incloses 
the  lateral  and  superior  petrosal  sinuses. 
Falx  Cerebelli,  projects  between  the  lateral  lobes  of  the  cerebellum,  from  the 

tentorium  to  the  foramen  magnum. 
Pacchionian   Bodies,  clusters  of  white  granulations  situated  on  the  outer 
and  inner  surfaces  of  the  dura  mater,  in  the  superior  longitudinal  sinus, 
and  on  the  pia  mater,  found  only  after  the  7th  year,  and .  of  unknown 
function. 
Describe   the   Arachnoid.     It   is  the  serous  sac  which   forms   the   middle 
membrane,  having  a  visceral  and  a  parietal  layer,  the   latter  being  reflected 
over  the  inferior  surface  of  the  dura  mater.     The  Anterior  Sub-arachnoid  Space 
is  the  interval  between  it  and  the  pia  mater  of  the  brain  at  the  base,  where  it 
is  extended  across  between  the  2  middle  lobes.      The  Posterior  Sub-arachnoid 
Space  is  a  similar  interval  between  the  hemispheres  of  the  brain  and  the  me- 
dulla oblongata.     These  spaces  communicate  together  across  the  crura  cere- 
bri ;  and  also  with  the  general  ventricular  cavity,  by  an  opening  in  the  lower 
boundaiy  of  the  4th  ventricle  ;;  and  contain  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid  which  forms 
a  water-bed  for  the  nervous  centres.     The  sac  of  the  arachnoid  also  contains  a 
serous  fluid  in  small  quantity. 

What  is  the  Pia  Mater  ?  It  is  the  vascular  membrane,  being  supplied  by 
the  branches  of  the  internal  carotid  and  vertebral  arteries.  It  covers  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain,  dipping  down  into  all  the  sulci,  and  forms  the  velum  inter- 
positum  and  choroid  plexus  of  the  4th  ventricle ;  and  contains  lymphatics  and 
nerves. 

How  is  the  Brain  divided  ?  Into  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  pons  Varolii, 
and  medulla  oblongata.  Its  average  weight  in  the  male  adult  is  49^  oz.,  in 
the  female  44  oz.,  of  which  the  cerebrum  is  about  seven -eighths.  The  ex- 
treme weights  in  278  male  cases  were  65  oz.  and  34  oz., — in  191  female  cases, 
56  oz.  and  31  oz. 

Describs  the  principal  Lobes  and  Fissures  of  the  Cerebrum.  Each  lateral 
half  of  the  cerebrum,  or  hemisphere,  has  the  following  5  lobes  and  8  fissures, 
besides  many  of  less  importance. 

Frontal  Lobe,  bounded  internally  by  the  longitudinal  fissure,  below  by  the 
fissure  of  Sylvius,  and  posteriorly  by  the  fissure  of  Rolando. 

Parietal  Lobe,  extending  down  to  the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  and  antero  poste- 
riorly from  the  fissure  of  Rolando  to  the  parieto-occipital. 

Occipital  Lobe,  behind  the  parieto-occipital  fissure. 

Temporo-sphenoidal  Lobe,  lying  in  the  middle  fossa  of  the  skull,  and  bounded 
in  front  by  the  fissure  of  Sylvius. 
11 


122  ANATOMY. 

Central  Lobe,  or  Island  of  Reil,  lies  in  the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  covered  by  the 

frontal  and  temporo-sphenoidal  lobes. 
Longitudinal  Fissure,  separating  the  two  hemispheres. 
Fissure  of  Sylvius,  at   the  base  of  the  brain,   extending  outwards  on  each 

side,  and  dividing  into  2  branches,  an  ascending  and  a  horizontal  one. 

It  lodges  the  middle  cerebral  artery. 
Fissure  of  Rolando,  on  the  superior  surface,  extending  from  the  longitudi- 
nal fissure  about  its  centre,  downwards  and  forwards  towards  the  fissure 

of  Sylvius,  separating  the  frontal  and  parietal  lobes. 
Parieto-occipital  Fissure,  extends  from  the  longitudinal  fissure  outwards  for 

about   an   inch   between   the   parietal   and   occipital  lobes.     It  is  l)etter 

marked  in  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  brain. 
Calloso-marginal  Fissure,  above  the  gyrus  foniicatus  on  the  inner  surface  of 

the  hemisphere. 
Transverse  Fissure,  between  the  middle  lobe  and  the  crus  cerebri,  at  the 

base  of  the  brain.     It  admits  the  pia  mater  to  the  lateral  ventricle. 
Calcarine  Fissure,  also  seen  on  the  inner  surface,  extending  from  the  lower 

end  of  the  parieto-occipital  fissure  outwards  to  the  posterior  border  of  the 

occipital  lobe. 
First  Temporo-sphenoidal  Fissure,  below  the  fissure  of  Sylvius,  on  the  lateral 

surface  of  the  brain. 

Name  the  principal  Convolutions  of  the  Cerebrum.  The  superior 
and  inner  surfaces  of  each  hemisphere  are  formed  of  convolutions  [gyri)  with 
intervening  furrows  [sulci)  of  various  depths,  both  gyri  and  sulci  being  formed 
of  gray  matter  thus  arranged  to  enable  it  to  present  a  great  extent  of  surface. 
The  convolutions  are  not  uniform  in  all  brains  as  to  arrangement,  nor  are  they 
symmetrical  in  the  2  hemispheres.  The  most  constant  are  the  following : — 
Gyrus  Fornicatus,  the  convolution  over  the  corpus    callosum,  seen  on  the 

inner  surface,  arching  from  before  backwards. 
Convolution  of  the  Longitudinal  Fissure,  along  the  edge  of  that  fissure  on 
the  superior  surface,  curving  over  the  front  and  back  of  each  hemisphere, 
to  the  base  of  the  brain. 
Ascending  Frontal,  lies  in  front  of  the  fissure  of  Rolando. 
Asce7tding  Parietal,  lies  behind  the  fissure  of  Rolando. 

Angular  Gyrus,  or  Pli  Courbe,  around  the  posterior  end  of  the  first  temporo- 
sphenoidal  fissure. 
Many  other  convolutions  are  named  by  writers  on  the  localization  of  cere- 
bral functions,  such  as   the  temporo-sphenoidal,  occipital,  supra-marginal    con- 
volutions, etc.     Their  names  will  be  found  sufficiently  explanatory  of  their 
several  locations.     The  Cuneus,  Precicncus,  and  Paracentral  Lobule  are  names 


THE   BRAIN.  123 

given  to  the  regions  between  the  calcarine,  parieto-occipital,  and  calloso-marginal 
fissures,  the  last-named  locality  lying  in  front  of  the  last-named  fissure. 

Name  the  Points  in  view  on  the  Inferior  Surface  of  the  Brain.  From 
before  backwards,  excluding  the  cranial  nerves,  are  the  following: — 

Longitudinal  Fissure,  its  anterior  portion. 

Corpus  Cailostim,  the  great  transverse  commissure  of  the  brain. 

Lamina  Citterea,  a  thin,  gray  layer,  beneath  the  optic  tracts. 

Fissure  of  Sylvius,  between  the  anterior  and  lemporo-sphenoidal  lobes. 

Anterior  Perforated  Space,  for  vessels  to  the  corpora  striata. 

Optic  Commissure,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  optic  tracts. 

Tuber  Cinereum,  a  gray  lamina  behind  the  optic  commissure,  forming  part 
of  the  floor  of  the  3d  ventricle. 

Lnfundibulum,  a  hollow  process,  connecting  the  pituitary  cavity  with  the  3d 
ventricle  in  the  foetus. 

Pituitary  Body,  a  vascular  bi-lobed  body,  of  glandular  structure,  projects 
from  the  infundibulum  into  the  sella  turcica  of  the  sphenoid. 

Corpora  Albicantia,  two  round,  white  eminences,  united  together;  they  are 
the  anterior  crura  of  the  fornix  folded  on  themselves. 

Posterior  Perforated  Space  [Pons  Tarini),  for  vessels  to  the  optic  thalami. 

Crura  Cerebri,  or  cerebral  peduncles,  connect  the  cerebrum  with  the  cere- 
bellum, spinal  cord,  and  medulla  oblongata;  containing  the  fibres  passing 
to  the  basal  ganglia.  They,  with  the  optic  tracts,  form  the  boundaries  of 
the  Inter-peduncular  Space. 

Pons  Varolii,  to  be  described  separately.     [See  page  126.] 

What  Ganglia  are  comprised  in  the  Brain  ?  Besides  the  gray  matter  of 
the  cerebral  hemispheres,  of  the  cerebellum,  and  of  the  medulla  oblongata, 
there  are  the  following  at  the  base  of  the  brain : — 

Olfactory  Bulbs.  Optic  Thalami.  Tuber  Annulare. 

Corpora  Striata.  Tubercula  Quadrigemina. 

Describe  the  Basal  Ganglia.     They  are  as  follows,  viz. — 
Olfactory  Bulbs  are  the  ganglia  of  the  sense  of  smell,  lie  one  on  each  side  of 

the  median  line,  upon  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid,  and  are  connected 

with  the  hemispheres  by  the  Olfactory  Tracts. 
Corpora  Striata,  the  motor  ganglia,  are  situated  in  the  floor  of  the  lateral 

ventricles,  and  therefore  within  the  hemispheres.     Each  coqDUS   striatum 

has  a — 

Caudate  Nucleus, — the  intraventricular  part. 
Lenticular  Nucleus, — the  extra  ventricular  part. 
Internal  Capsule, — divides  these  two  parfs. 
Optic  Thalami,  the  sensory  ganglia,  are  in  the  floor  of  the  lateral  ventricles, 


124  ANATOMY. 

behind  the  corpora  striata.  Each  thalamus  opticus  is  divided  into  an  anterior 
tubercle  seen  in  the  lateral  ventricle,  and  a  posterior  tubercle  beneath  the 
fornix. 

Corpora  Quadrigemina,  or  Optic  Lobes  (2  nates  and  2  testes),  lie  beneath  the 
posterior  lobes,  near  the  union  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum.  They  form 
two  single  ganglia  for  vision.     [Described  under  Meso-cephalon.] 

Tuber  Annulare,  a  ganglion  in  the  substance  of  the  pons  Varolii,  the  seat  of 
indistinct  sensation  probably. 

Name  the  Commissures  of  the  Brain.     These  connecting  bands  number  19 
in  all,  of  which  10  are  longitudinal,  and  9  transverse  in  direction,  viz, — 
Longitudinal  commissures.  Transverse  co7nmissures. 

Olfactory  Tracts.  Anterior  Commissure  of  3d  ventricle. 

Taenia  Semicircularis.  Middle  Commissure  of  3d  ventricle. 

Crura  Cerebri.  Posterior  Commissure  of  3d  ventricle. 

Processes  e  Cerebello  ad  Testes.  Corpus  Callosum. 

Peduncles  of  the  Pineal  Gland.  Optic  Commissure. 

Fornix.  Pons  Varolii. 

Infundibulum.  Fornix  is  a  transverse  commissure  as 
Lamina  Cinerea.  well  as  a  longitudinal  one. 

Gyrus  Fornicatus.  Posterior  Medullary  Velum. 

Fasciculus  Unciformis.  Valve  of  Vieussens. 

What  are  the  Ventricles  of  the  Brain  ?  They  are  5  cavities,  each  of  which 
is  situated  as  follows  : — 

Two  Lateral  Ventricles,  within  the  substance  of  the  hemispheres. 

Third  Ventricle,  between  the  optic  ihalami,  on  the  base  of  the  brain. 

Fourth  Ventricle,  between  the  cerebellum  and  the  medulla  oblongata. 

Fifth  Ventricle,  between  the  two  lateral,  in  the  septum  lucidum. 

Ventricle  of  the  Corpus  Callosum,  so  called,  is  merely  the  space  between  the 
upper  surface  of  that  commissure  and  the  margins  of  the  hemispheres 
above  {labia  cerebri'). 

The  Foramina  of  Monroe  connect  the  2  lateral  ventricles  with  the  3d ;  the 
Iter  e  Tertio  ad  Quartam  Ventriculum,  or  aqueduct  of  Sylvius,  connects  the 
3d  with  the  4th. 

Describe  and  bound  the  Lateral  Ventricles.  They  each  have  3  cornua,  the 
anterior,  middle,  and  posterior,  and  are  bounded  as  follows: — 

Roof, — the  corpus  callosum. 

Lloor, — the  corpus  striatum,  taenia  semicircularis  or  horny  band  of  Tarinus, 
optic  thalamus,  choroid  plexus,  corpus  fimbriatum,  and  the  fornix. 

Internally, — the  septum  lucidufn. 

Externally,  behind  and  in  front, — the  brain  substance. 


THE    BRAIN.  125 

What  are  the  parts  above-named  ?  Some,  as  the  corpus  striatum,  optic 
thalamus,  etc.,  have  been  described  already;  the  others  are — 

Corpus  Callosum,  the  great  transverse  commissure,  arching  backwards  to 
become  continuous  with  the  fornix,  reflected  below,  forming  the  Peduncles 
at  the  entrance  of  the  fissure  of  Sylvius;  and  marked  above  by  a  depres- 
sion, the  Raphiy  and  longitudinal  elevations,  the  Strice  Longitudinales  or 
Nerves  of  Lancisi. 

Tcenia  Semicircuiaris,  consists  of  commissural  fibres  between  the  corpus 
striatum  and  the  optic  thalamus. 

Choroid  Plexus  of  Veins,  is  the  margin  of  a  fold  of  pia  mater  which  enters  at 
the  transverse  fissure,  passes  up  the  descending  cornu,  passes  through  the 
foramen  of  Monroe,  and  as  the  Velum  Interpositum  spreads  out  over  the 
roof  of  the  3d  ventricle. 

Corpus  Fimbriatuniy  or  Tania  Hippocampi^  is  a  white  band,  the  edge  of  the 
posterior  pillar  of  the  fornix. 

Fornix,  is  a  commissure  situated  beneath  the  corpus  callosum,  but  continuous 
with  it  posteriorly,  the  Septum  Lucidum  separating  them  in  front.  It. is  of 
triangular  form  with  the  apex  in  front.  Its  Anterior  Crura  curve  down- 
wards to  the  base  of  the  brain,  are  there  reflected,  forming  the  Corpora 
Albicantia,  and  end  in  the  optic  thalami.  Its  Posterior  Crura  pass  down 
the  descending  horns  of  the  lateral  ventricles,  as  the  Hippocampi  Majores. 
The  Lyra  is  a  series  of  markings  on  its  under  surface. 

Septum  Lucidum,  consists  of  2  layers  of  white  and  gray  matter,  lined  by 
epithelium ;  is  placed  vertically  between  the  lateral  ventricles,  from  the 
raph6  of  the  corpus  callosum  above  to  the  fornix  below.  The  cavity  in 
its  centre  is  the  5th  ventricle. 

Describe  the  Comua  of  the  Lateral  Ventricles.  The  Anterior  Cornu 
curves  over  the  anterior  end  of  the  corpus  striatum  into  the  anterior  lobe. 
The  Posterior  Cornu  curves  downwards  and  inwards  in  the  occipital  lobe, 
and  contains  a  smooth  eminence,  the  Hippocampus  Minor.  The  Middle  Cornu 
descends  into  the  middle  lobe  to  the  transverse  fissure  at  the  base  of  the  brain, 
curving  backwards,  outwards,  downwards,  forwards,  and  inwards  (B.  O.  D. 
F.  I.).     On  its  floor  are  the  following: — 

Hippocampus  Major,  the  doubled-in  surface  of  the  gyrus  fornicatus. 

Pes  Hippocampi,  rounded  eminences  at  the  end  of  the  hippocampus. 

Pes  Accessorius,  or  Eminentia  Collateralis,  between  the  hippocampi,  at  the 
junction  of  the  middle  and  posterior  comua. 

Corpus  Fimbriatum,  a  continuation  of  the  posterior  pillar  of  the  fornix. 

Choroid  Plexus  of  Veins,  a  process  of  pia  mater,  already  described. 

Fascia  Dentata,  the  gray  serrated  edge  of  the  middle  lobe. 

Transverse  Fissure,  at  the  extremity  of  the  cornu,  extending  to  the  median 
11* 


126  ANATOMY. 

line,  between  the  hippocampus  major  and  the  optic  thalamus.  It  opens 
at  the  base  of  the  brain  between  the  middle  lobe  and  the  crus  cerebri, 
and  admits  the  pia  mater  to  the  middle  cornu. 

Describe  and  bound  the  Third  Ventricle.  It  is  a  mere  fissure,  situated 
between  the  optic  thalami  in  the  median  line.  It  communicates  with  the 
lateral  ventricles  above  by  the  foramina  of  Monroe,  and  with  the  4th  ventricle 
behind  by  the  iter  e  tertio  ad  quartam  ventriculum.  It  is  crossed  by  3  bands, 
the  anterior,  middle,  and  posterior  commissures,  the  middle  one  being  of  gray 
matter,  the  others  of  white.  In  the  foetus  its  cavity  communicates  with  the  5th 
ventricle,  and  through  the  infundibulum  with  the  cavity  of  the  pituitary  body. 
It  is  bounded  as  follows  : — 

Roof, — the  velum  interpositum,  and  above  it  the  fornix. 

Floor, — the  parts  comprised  in  the  interpeduncular  space  at  the  base  of  the 
brain,  viz. — the  lamina  cinerea,  tuber  cinereum,  infundibulum,  corpora 
albicantia,  and  posterior  perforated  space. 

Anteriorly, — the  anterior  crura  of  the  fornix,  and  the  anterior  commissure 
•of  the  ventricle. 

Posteriorly, — the  posterior  commissure,  and  the  iter  e  tertio,  etc. 

Laterally, —  the  optic  thalami  and  the  peduncles  of  the  pineal  gland. 

Describe  and  bound  the  Fourth  Ventricle.  The  fourth,  or  ventricle  of 
the  cerebellum,  lies  between  the  medulla  oblongata  and  the  cerebellum.  It  is 
considered  by  some  to  be  a  dilatation  of  the  central  canal  of  the  spinal  cord, 
and  is  enclosed  posteriorly  by  the  pia  mater ;  an  opening  in  which  admits  the 
entrance  and  exit  of  the  sub-arachnoid  fluid  from  the  sub-arachnoidean  space  of 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  a  fold  of  the  pia  mater  called  the  Choroid 
Plexus.  It  also  communicates  with  the  3d  ventricle  by  the  iter  e  tertio,  etc. 
Its  boundaries  are  as  follows : — 

Roof, — the  valve  of  Vieussens,  and  the  cerebellum. 

Anteriorly, — the  medulla  oblongata,  and  the  pons  Varolii. 

Posteriorly, — the  cerebellum. 

Laterally, — the  processus  e  cerebello  ad  testes,  the  posterior  pyramids  and 
the  restiform  bodies  of  the  medulla  oblongata. 

Floor, — the  posterior  median  fissure  of  the  medulla,  the  orifice  of  the  cen- 
tral canal  of  the  cord,  the  locus  ceruleus  and  taenia  violacea  (both  of  blue 
color),  the  fasculi  teretes  (2  spindle-shaped  elevations)  and  eminences  of 
origin  of  certain  nerves. 

Describe  the  Fifth  Ventricle.  It  is  situated  between  the  two  layers  of  the 
septum  lucidum,  and  therefore  between  the  lateral  ventricles.  Its  roof  is  formed 
by  the  corpus  calIosum,and  in  the  foetus  it  communicates  with  the  3d  ventricle 
by  an  opening  between  the  pillars  of  the  fornix.     It  usually  contains  fluid. 


THE   BRAIN,  127 

What  is  the  Meso-cephalon  ?  It  comprises  tlie  parts  which  connect  the 
cerebrum  wiili  tlie  cerebelhim  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  includes  the 
following  structures,  viz  : — 

Pons  Varolii,  a  great  transverse  commissure  seen  at  the  base  of  the  brain 
in  front  of  the  medulla.  Its  fibres  connect  the  hemispheres  of  the  cere- 
bellum with  each  other  and  the  medulla. 

Crura  Cerebri,  or  Peduncles  of  the  Cerebrum,  extend  from  the  pons  to  the 
corpora  striata  and  optic  thalami,  and  consist  of  the  Peduncular  Fibres 
which  pass  from  the  medulla  to  the  ganglia  named,  and  thence  upwards 
to  the  gray  matter  of  the  hemispheres  as  the  Corona  Kadiata.  Each  crus 
contains  in  its  centre  a  mass  of  gray  matter  called  the  locus  niger. 

Valve  of  Vieussens,  is  a  thin  lamina  forming  the  roof  of  the  iter  e  tertio  ad 
quartam  ventriculum,  and  stretched  between  the  two  processus  e  cerebello 
ad  testes.  Its  Frenulum  is  a  ridge  descending  on  its  upper  part  from  the 
corpora  quadrigemina. 

Corpora  Quadrigemina,  or  Optic  Lobes,  are  4  spherical  eminences  placed 
together  above  the  valve  of  Vieussens,  and  behind  the  3d  ventricle  be- 
neath the  posterior  border  of  the  corpus  callosum.  The  anterior  pair  are 
called  the  Nates,  the  posterior,  the  Testes,  and  they  are  connected  with  the 
optic  thalami  and  optic  tracts  by  4  bands,  their  Brachia ;  and  with  the 
cerebellum  by  a  white  cord  on  each  side,  the  Processus  e  Cerebello  ad  Testes. 
They  form  two  ganglia  for  the  centre  of  vision. 

Pineal  Gland,  is  a  small  conical  reddish  body  situated  between  the  nates,  on 
which  it  rests.  Its  4  peduncles  connect  it  with  the  anterior  crura  of  the 
fornix,  and  the  optic  thalami.  It  is  very  vascular,  and  has  a  small  cavity 
(said  to  communicate  with  the  3d  ventricle)  which  contains  a  viscid  fluid, 
and  some  concretions  formed  of  the  phosphates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and 
ammonia,  etc.,  called  the  Acervul^  Cerebri. 

Describe  the  Medulla  Oblongata.  This  ganglion  is  the  upper  enlaiged 
part  of  the  spinal  cord,  extending  from  the  upper  border  of  the  atlas  to  the 
pons  Varolii.  Its  posterior  surface  forms  the  floor  of  the  4th  ventricle,  its 
anterior  surface  rests  on  the  basilar  groove  of  the  occipital  bone.  It  is  divided 
into  two  lateral  halves  by  the  Anterior  and  Posterior  Median  Fissures,  and  con- 
tains gray  matter  scattered  throughout  it,  from  which  the  cranial  nerves  from 
the  5th  to  the  12th  inclusive  arise  entirely  or  in  part.  In  it  are  supposed  to  lie 
the  centres  for  the  vaso-motor  and  the  cardiac  nerves,  also  centres  of  respira- 
tion, phonation,  deglutition,  mastication,  and  expression.  On  each  side  it  pre- 
sents the  following, — 

Anterior  Pyramid,  formed  by  the  anterior  and  lateral  columns  of  the  spinal 
cord. 


128  ANATOMY. 

Olivary  Body,  behind  the  pyramid,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  groove 
of  the  hypoglossal  nerve.  It  contains  a  capsule  of  gray  matter  in  its  cen- 
tre, the  Corpus  Dcntatu7)i. 

Lateral  Tract,  continuous  with  the  lateral  column  of  the  spinal  cord,  lies 
behind  the  olivary  body  and  in  front  of  the  restiform. 

Restifortn  Body,  the  posterior  lateral  portion  of  the  medulla,  also  called  the 
Fasciculus  Cuneatus. 

Posterior  Fyra?nid,  or  Fasciculus  Gracilis,  the  most  posterior  portion,  is 
formed  by  the  posterior  median  column  of  the  spinal  cord.  It  diverges 
from  its  fellow  at  the  apex  of  the  4th  ventricle  and  forms  the  lateral 
boundary  of  the  Calamus  Scriptorius. 

What  is  the  Cerebellum  ?  It  is  that  portion  of  the  brain  situated  in  the 
inferior  occipital  fossse,  beneath  the  posterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum.  It  is  an 
oblong  flattened  ganglion,  divided  into  two  lateral  hemispheres,  and  a  central 
portion,  the  Vermiform  Process. 

Name  the  Fissures  of  the  Cerebellum.  They  are  3  in  number,— 2  ver- 
tical and  I  horizontal,  viz. — 

Incisura  Cerebelli  Anterior.  Great  Horizontal  Fissure,  from  which 

Incisura  Cerebelli  Posterior.  secondary  fissures  originate. 

Name  the  Points  on  the  surfaces  of  the  Cerebellum.     They  comprise  15 
lobes,  2  commissures,  and  3  projections,  as  follows; — 
On  the  upper  surface  of  each  hemisphere, — 

Anterior  or  Square  Lobe.  Posterior  or  Semilunar  Lobe. 

On  the  under  surface  of  each  hemisphere,  from  before  backwards, — 

Flocculus,  Subpeduncular  Lobe,  or  Pneuviogastric  Lobule. 

Amygdala  Lobe,  or  Tonsil,  projects  into  the  4th  ventricle. 

Digastric  Lobe.  Slender  Lote.  Posterior  Inferior  Lobe. 

On  the  vermiform  process  are  the — 

Lobulus  Centralis.       ^  Pyramid.  "j 

Monticulus  Cerebelli.    >  superiorly.          Uvula.  \  inferiorly. 

Commissura  Simplex.  )  Commissura  Brevis.  ) 

The  Vallecula,  or  valley  of  the  cerebellum,  is  the  central  depression  on  its 

under  surface  between  the  two  lateral  hemispheres. 

Name  the  Peduncles  of  the  Cerebellum,  They  are  3  in  number  on  each 
side,  and  from  below  upwards  are  as  follows : — 

Processus  e  Cerebello  ad  Medullam,  to  the  medulla  oblongata. 
Processus  e  Cerebello  ad  Pontem,  connect  the  hemispheres. 
Processus  e  Cerebello  ad  Testes,  to  the  cerebrum. 

Describe  the  Gray  Matter  of  the  Cerebellum.     It  occupies  the  surface  of 


THE   CRANIAL    NERVES.  129 

the  mass  in  laminated  shape,  and  is  traversed  by  curved  furrows,  between  the 
laminae.     A  veilical  section  gives  an  appearance  called  the  Arbor  Vita. 

Corpus  Dentatum,  is  a  capsule  of  gray  matter  in  the  centre  of  the  white 
and  is  open  anteriorly.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  ganglion  of  the  cere- 
bellum. 

THE  SPINAL  CORD. 

Describe  the  Spinal  Cord.  It  is  that  part  of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  which 
is  situated  in  the  spinal  canal.  Its  length  is  about  i6  inches,  terminating  at 
the  lower  border  of  the  1st  lumbar  vertebra  in  the  Cauda  Equina.  It  is  cylin- 
drical in  general  form,  with  2  enlargements,  one  in  the  cervical  region,  the 
other  in  the  lumbar.  It  is  composed  of  gray  and  white  matter,  the  gray  being 
inside  (instead  of  outside,  as  in  the  cerebrum),  and  arranged  so  as  to  present 
a  crescentic  appearance  in  horizontal  section,  joined  by  a  transverse  commis- 
sure, and  forming,  by  their  extremities,  the  Anterior  and  Posterior  Horns,  from 
which  regions  respectively  the  anterior  and  posterior  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves 
have  their  apparent  origin. 

Membranes  of  the  cord  are  3,  as  in  the  brain, — dura  mater,  arachnoid, 
and  pia  mater.  The  Dura  Mater  is  not  adherent  to  the  spinal  column, 
but  is  connected  thereto  by  fibrous  tissue.  The  Arachnoid  is  arranged  as 
on  the  brain,  its  sub-arachnoid  space  being  filled  with  its  fluid,  for  the 
protection  of  the  chord.  The  Pia  Afaterhas  a  fibrous  band  on  each  side, 
the  ligamentum  denticulatum,  connecting  it  to  the  dura  mater  by  some  20 
serrations. 
Fissures,  number  8, — the  anterior  and  posterior  median,  the  anterior  and 
posterior  lateral  on  each  side,  and  the  two  posterior  intermediaiy  in  the 
cervical  region. 
Columns,  are  8  in  number,  4  on  each  side  of  the  cord, — an  anterior,  lateral, 
posterior,  and  posterior  median.  The  Anterior  is  continuous  with  the 
anterior  pyramid  of  the  medulla ;  the  Lateral,  with  the  lateral  column  of 
the  medulla;  the  Posterior,  with  the  resliform  body;  the  Posterior-median, 
with  the  posterior  pyramid. 
Central  Canal,  or  Ventricle  of  the  Cord,  extends  through  its  entire  length  in 
the  foetus  and  in  some  adults,  but  is  usually  closed  except  for  one-half  inch 
below  its  orifice  in  the  floor  of  the  4th  ventricle. 

THE  CRANIAL  NERVES. 
Describe  'each  Cranial  Nerve,  stating  its  function,  apparent  and  deep 
origin,  foramen  of  exit,  principal  branches  and  distribution.  There  are 
12  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  (9  according  to  Willis),  of  which  those  from  the  6th 
to  the  1 2th  inclusive  have  their  deep  origin  wholly  or  in  part  from  the  floor  of 
the  4th  ventricle.     They  are  the — 

I 


130 


ANATOMY. 


tertio  ad  quartam 


Fig.  6i.  jst,  Olfactory,   nerve  of  smell, — 

arises  by  2  roots  from  the  anterior 
cerebral  lobe  and  i  root  from  the 
middle  lobe,  deeply  from  the  optic 
thalamus,  island  of  Reil,  corpus 
striatum,  and  anterior  commis- 
sure ;  exi^hy  20  branches  through 
the  cribriform  plate,  to  the  Schnei- 
derian  membrane.  Its  bulb  is  a 
lobe  of  the  cerebrum. 
2d,  Optic,  nerve  of  sight, — arises 
from  the  optic  commissure'*  and 
tracts,  deeply  from  the  optic  thal- 
amus, corpora  geniculata,and  cor- 
pora quadrigemina;  exit  through 
the  optic  foramen  to  the  retina. 

3d,  Motor  Oculi,^  motor  of  the  eye, 

— a7-ises  from  the    crus   cerebri, 

deeply  from  the  floor  of  the  iter  e 

entriculum ;  exit  through  the  sphenoidal  fissure,  to  all  the 

muscles  of  the   orbit    except   the 

superior  oblique  and  the  external 

rectus,  also  to  the  iris. 

4th,  Patheticus,8  motor  of  the  eye, 
— arises  from  the  outer  side  of  the 
crus,  deeply  from  the  valve  of 
Vieussens;  ^xzV  through  the  sphe- 
noidal fissure,  to  the  superior  ob- 
lique muscle  of  the  eye. 

5th,  Trigeminus,^  nerve  of  sensa- 
tion, motion,  and  taste, — arises  by 
two  roots, — from  the  side  of  the 
pons  Varolii,^  deeply  from  tlie 
pyramidal  body  (motor  root), 
lateral  tract  of  the  medulla,  the 
pons,  and  cerebellum  (sensory 
root).  Exit  of  ophthalmic  divi- 
sion by  the  sphenoidal  fissure; 
of  superior  maxillary  by  the  fora- 
men rotundum  ;  of  inferior  max- 


FlG.  62 


THE   SPINAL    NERVES,  133 

THE    SPINAL   NERVES. 

Describe  the  Spinal  Nerves.  There  are  31  pairs  of  spinal  nerves,  of  which 
the  cervical  number  8,  the  dorsal  12,  the  lumbar  5,  the  sacral  5,  and  the  coc- 
cygeal I.  The  1st  cervical  escapes  above  the  1st  vertebra,  each  of  the  others 
below  the  corresponding  vertebra  through  the  intervertebral  foramina.  Each 
nerve  arises  by  2  roots,  an  anterior  motor  root,  and  a  posterior  sensory  one, 
the  latter  having  a  ganglion  on  it.  These  unite,  and  the  nerve  then  divides  into 
2  branches,  both  having  motor  and  sensory  fibres.  The  posterior  branches  are 
small  and  generally  unimportant ;  they  supply  the  muscles  and  integument  of 
the  back.  The  anterior  branches  supply  the  neck,  front,  and  sides  of  the 
trunk,  and  the  extremities,  uniting  in  various  regions  to  form  plexuses  from 
which  important  nerve-trunks  originate. 

How  is  the  Cervical  Plexus  formed  and  distributed?  It  is  formed 
by  the  anterior  branches  of  the  first  4  cervical  nerves,  and  rests  on  the  levator 
anguli  scapulae  and  scalenus  medius  muscles.  Its  branches  (10)  comprise  4 
superficial  to  the  integument  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  following  deep 
branches,  viz. — 

Phrenic.         Commiinicans  Noni,         2  Muscular.  2  Communicating. 

Describe  the  Phrenic  Nerve.  It  arises  by  3  heads  from  the  3d,  4th,  and 
5th  cervical,  descends  across  the  front  of  the  scalenus  anticus,  crossing  the  sub- 
clavian and  internal  mammary  aileries,  in  the  middle  mediastinum,  and  is  dis- 
tributed to  the  inferior  surface  of  the  diaphragm.  It  is  often  called  the  Inter- 
nal Respiratory  Nerve  of  Bell.  It  sends  filaments  to  the  pericardium  and 
pleura,  and  communicates  with  the  plexuses  of  the  sympathetic  in  the  abdo- 
men. 

Describe  the  formation  and  distribution  of  the  Brachial  Plexus.  It 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  4  lower  cervical  nerves  and  the  ist  dorsal.  The 
5th,  6th,  and  7th  unite  into  one  trunk  externally  to  the  scalenus  medius,  as  also 
do  the  8th  cervical  and  ist  dorsal  behind  the  same  muscle.  Below  the  line  of 
the  clavicle  both  these  trunks  bifurcate ;  the  two  adjacent  branches  unite  be- 
hind the  axillary  artery  making  the  Posterior  Cord,  and  the  remaining  2  form 
the  Outer  and  Inner  Cords,  referred  to  the  artery.  Each  of  these  cords  bifur- 
cates, but  the  2  adjacent  branches  of  the  outer  and  inner  cords  unite  over  the 
artery,  to  form  the  Median  Nerve,  leaving  4  other  branches,  the  Ulnar,  Mus- 
ctdo- cutaneous,  Musado-spinal,  and  Circumflex  Nerves,  the  last  2  being  de- 
rived from  the  posterior  cord. 

The  branches  of  the  brachial  plexus  are  as  follows,  viz. — 
Above  the  clavicle  are  given  off  4,  the — 

Communicating,  completing  the  phrenic  nerve. 

Muscular,  to  the  longus  colli,  scaleni,  rhomboidei,  and  subclavius  muscles, 
12 


134  ANATOMY. 

Posterior,  or  Long  Thoracic,  external  respiratory  nerve  of  Bell,  to  the  serra- 
tus  magnus,  arising  from  the  5th  and  6th  cervical. 

Suprascapular,  from  the  ist  trunk  of  the  plexus,  to  the  scapular  muscles. 
Below  the  clavicle  are  12,  the, — 

2  Anterior  Thoracic,  from  outer  and  inner  cords  to  the  pectoral  muscles. 

J  Stibscapular,  from  the  posterior  cord,  to  the  subscapularis,  teres  major, 
and  latissimus  dorsi  muscles. 

Circumflex,  from  the  posterior  cord,  to  the  muscles  and  integument  of  the 
shoulder,  and  the  shoulder-joint. 

Musculo- cutaneous,  from  the  outer  cord,  to  the  forearm  externally,  piercing 
the  coraco-brachialis  muscle. 

Internal  Cutaneous,  from  the  inner  cord,  to  the  arm  and  forearm. 

Lesser  Internal  Cutaneous  (nerve  of  Wrisberg^  from  the  inner  cord  to  the 
inner  side  of  the  arm.  Is  sometimes  wanting,  sometimes  connected  with 
the  intercosto-humeral. 

Median,  from  outer  and  inner  cords,  passes  between  the  2  heads  of  the  pro- 
nator radii  teres,  supplying  the  pronators,  flexors,  first  2  lumbricales,  and 
the  integument  of  the  thumb,  2^  fingers,  and  the  radial  side  of  the  palm. 
Its  branches  are  all  in  the  palm,  the — 

Muscular.  Anterior  Interosseus.  Palmar  Cutaneous. 

Ulnar,  from  the  inner  cord,  passes  between  the  2  heads  of  the  flexor  carpi 
ulnaris  at  the  inner  condyle  of  the  humerus,  supplying  the  elbow-  and 
wrist-joints,  several  muscles,  and  the  palmar  and  dorsal  integument  of  the 
little  finger  and  half  of  the  ring  finger.     Branches  are  the — 
2  Articular.  Cutaneous.  Superficial  Palmar. 

Muscular.  Dorsal.  Deep  Palmar. 

Musculo-spiral,  from  the  posterior  cord,  accompanies  the  superior  profunda 
artery  and  vein  in  the  spiral  groove  of  the  humerus,  and  at  the  external 
condyle  it  divides  into  the  radial  and  posterior  interosseus  nerves.  Its 
branches  are — 

Muscular.         Cutaneous.         Radial.         Posterior  Interosseous. 
The  Radial  supplies  the  outer  side  and  ball  of  the  thumb,  and  the  dorsal 

integument  of  2^  fingers. 
The  Posterior  Interosseus  supplies  all  the  muscles  on  the  back  of  the  fore- 
arm except  3,  and  also  sends  a  filament  to  the  wrist-joint. 

What  is  the  Intercosto-humeral  Nerve  ?  It  is  the  lateral  cutaneous  branch 
of  the  2d  intercostal  (anterior  branch  of  the  2d  dorsal)  ;  it  pierces  the  external 
intercostal  muscle  and  crosses  the  axilla,  joining  with  a  filament  from  the  lesser 
internal  cutaneous  (nerve  of  Wrisberg),  and  supplying  the  skin  of  the  upper 
half  of  the  inside  of  the  arm. 


THE  SPINAL   NERVES. 


135 


Fig.  63. 


Describe  the  Lumbar  Plexus.     It  is  formed  by  communicating  loops  from 
the  anterior  branches  of  the  first  4  lumbar  nerves,  in  the  following  manner. 
From  the  First  lumbar  nerve  are  given  off  the — 
Ilio-hypogastricy  to  the  abdominal  and  gluteal  regions. 
Ilio-inguinal,  to  the  inguinal  region  and  the  scrotum. 
Communicating  Loop,  to  the  second  lumbar  nerve. 
From  the  Second  lumbar  nerve  are  given  off  the — 
External  Cutaneous,  to  the  integument  of  the  outside 

of  the  thigh. 
Genito-crural,  to  the  spermatic  cord  and  front  of  the 

thigh. 
Communicating  Branch,  to  the  third  lumbar  nerve. 
From  the  Third  and  Fourth  lumbar  nerves  are  given 
off  the  following  by  a  branch  of  origin  from  each, 
viz. — 

Obturator,  through  the  obturator  foramen  to  the  ex- 
ternal obturator  and  adductor  muscles  and  the  hip- 
and  knee-joints. 
Accessory  Obturator  (often  absent),  to  the  pectineus 

and  hip-joint. 
Communicating,  from  the  3d  lumbar  to  the  4th. 
Communicatittg,  from  the  4th  lumbar  to  the  5th. 
Anterior  Crural,  which  descends  through  the  psoas 
muscle,  and   beneath   Poupart's   ligament   to   the 
thigh,  where  it  divides  into  an  anterior  and  pos- 
terior division.     Its  branches  are, — 

To  the  Iliacus  muscle.  Long  Saphenous. 

To  the  Femoral  artery.  Muscular. 

Middle  and  Internal  Cutaneous.         Articular. 

Describe  the  Sacral  Plexus. <^  It  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  upper  4  sacral  nerves^  with  the  5th  lum- 
bar and  a  loop  from  the  4th,  the  two  latter  forming  the 
Lumbosacral  Cord  A  It  lies  upon  the  pyriformis  muscle 
and  gives  off  the  following  5  branches,  viz. — 

Superior  Gluteal,b  from  the  lumbo-sacral  cord,  sup- 
plies the  glutei  and  tensor  vaginae  femoris. 

Muscular  Branches,  to  the  pyrifonnis,  obturator  internus,  gemelli,  and  quad- 
ratus  femoris  muscles. 

rudic,e  escapes  by  the  great   sacro-sciatic  foramen,  crosses   the   ischiatic 


136  ANATOMY. 

spine,  and  re-enters  the  pelvis  by  the  lesser  sacro-sciatic  foramen,  supply- 
ing the  perineum,  anus,  and  genitalia. 

Small  Sciatic,/  to  the  gluteus  maximus,  and  integument  of  the  perineum, 
scrotum,  and  back  of  the  thigh  and  leg. 

Great  Sciatic,g  the  largest  nerve  of  the  body,  and  the  direct  continuation 
of  the  sacral  plexus,  escapes  by  the  great  sacro-sciatic  foramen,  sends  an 
Articular  Branch  to  the  hip-joint.  Muscular  branches  to  the  adductor 
magnus,  semimembranosus,  semitendinosus,  and  biceps  muscles,  and  ter- 
minates in  the  External^  and  Internali  Popliteal  nerves,  generally  about 
the  lower  one-third  of  the  thigh. 

Describe  the  External  Popliteal  Nerve.  It  passes  from  the  bifurcation  of 
the  great  sciatic  along  the  outer  side  of  the  popliteal  space,  gives  off  Articular 
and  Cutaneous  branches,  and  about  an  inch  below^  the  head  of  _the  fibula  it 
divides  into  the — 

Anterior  Tibial, ^"^  supplying  the  extensors,  and  the  integument  of  the  adja- 
cent sides  of  the  great  and  2d  toes. 
Musculo-cutaneous,n  by  2  branches  (internal  and  external)  to  the  peroneal 
muscles,  the  integument  of  the  ankles,  and  the  dorsal  integument  and 
sides  of  all  the  toes,  except  the  outer  side  of  the  little  toe  and  the  ad- 
joining sides  of  the  great  and  2d  toes. 

Describe  the  Internal  Popliteal  Nerve.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  two,  and 
descends  along  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  leg,  becoming  the  Posterior 
Tibial^  at  the  lower  border  of  the  popliteus  muscle,  and  dividing  into  the 
External  and  Internal  Plantarl  below  the  inner  malleolus.  Its  branches  are 
as  follows : — 

Articular,  3  in  number,  to  the  knee-joint. 

Muscular,  to  the  gastrocnemius,  soleus,  plantaris,  and  popliteus. 
External  or  Short  Saphenous, P  formed  by  a  filament  from  both  popliteal 
nerves,  supplies  the  integument  of  the  little  toe  and  outer  side  of  the  foot. 
Muscular,  to  the  tibialis  posticus,  flexor  longus  pollicis,  and  flexor  longus 

digitorum. 
Plantar  Cutaneous,  to  the  skin  of  the  heel  and  inner  sole  of  the  foot. 
Internal  Plantar,  to  the  inner  plantar  muscles,  sole  of  the  foot,  and  the 

plantar  integument  of  the  inner  3^  toes. 
External  Plantar,  to  the  external  plantar  muscles,  and  the  plantar  integu- 
ment of  the  outer  \y^  toes. 

THE   SYMPATHETIC   NERVE. 

What  is  the  Sjnupathetic  Nerve  ?  It  consists  of  a  series  of  ganglia  situated 
on  each  side  of  the  vertebral  column,  connected  together  and  to  the  cerebro- 


THE  SYMPATHETIC  NERVE.  137 

spinal  system  by  intervening  cords,  beginning  in  the  ganglion  of  Ribes  on  the 
anterior  communicating  artery,  and  ending  in  the  ganglion  impar^  in  front  of 
the  coccyx. 

Name  the  Ganglia  of  the  Sympathetic  in  the  Cranium  and  its  vicinity. 
They  are  9  in  number,  as  follows : — 

Ganglion  of  Ribes,  on  the  anterior  communicating  artery. 

Ganglion  of  Laumonier,  on  the  internal  carotid  artery. 

Ciliary,  or  Ophthalmic  Ganglion,  in  the  orbital  cavity. 

Spheno-palatine  {MeckeV s)  Ganglion,  in  the  spheno-maxilfery  fossa. 

Otic  [Arnold's)  Ganglion,  under  the  foramen  ovale. 

Submaxillary  Ganglion,  above  the  submaxillary  gland. 

Ganglion  of  Cloquet,  in  the  incisive  fossa,  on  the  naso-palatine  nerve. 

Ganglion  of  Bidder,  below  the  foramen  spinosum,  on  the  middle  meningeal 

artery. 
Ganglion  of  Bochdalek,  on  a  branch  between  the  spheno-palatine  ganglion 

and  the  inferior  dental  nerve. 

Describe   the  Ganglia  connected  with   the   5th  Cranial   Nerve.     There 
are  4  such,  each  having  a  motor,  a  sensory,  and  a  sympathetic  root,  viz. — 

Ciliary,  or  Ophthalmic  Ganglion,  is  situated  in  the  orbit,  between  the  optic 
nerve  and  the  external  rectus  muscle.  Its  sensory  root  is  derived  from  the 
nasal  branch  of  the  ophthalmic,  its  motor  root  from  the  3d  nerve,  its 
sympathetic  root  from  the  cavernous  plexus.  Its  branches  are  the  short 
ciliaiy  nerves,  and  are  distributed  to  the  ciliary  muscle  and  the  iris. 

Spheno-palatine,  or  Meckel  s  Ganglion,  is  a  large  ganglion  situated  in  the 
spheno-maxillary  fossa.  Its  sensory  root  is  derived  from  the  superior 
maxillary,  its  motor  root  from  the  facial  by  the  Vidian  and  large  petrosal, 
its  sympathetic  root  from  the  carotid  plexus,  by  the  carotid  branch  of  the 
Vidian.     Its  branches  are  the — 

Ascending.  Middle  Palatine.      Vidian. 

Anterior  Palatine.      Superior  Nasal.        Large  Petrosal,  carotid  branch. 

Posterior  Palatine.     Naso-palatine.  Pterygo-palatine. 

Otic  Ganglion  {Arnold's),  is  situated  on  the  inferior  maxillary  nerve,  imme- 
diately below  the  foramen  ovale.  Its  sensory  root  is  derived  from  the 
auriculo-temporal  branch  of  the  inferior  maxillary ;  its  motor  root  from 
the  internal  pterygoid  branch  of  the  same,  also  from  the  facial  and  glosso- 
pharyngeal by  the  small  petrosal ;  its  sympathetic  root  from  the  middle 
meningeal  plexus.  Its  branches  are  distributed  to  the  tensor  palati  and 
tensor  tympani  muscles. 

Submaxillary  Ganglion,  is  situated  above  the  submaxillary  gland.     Its  sen- 
sory root  is  derived  from  the  gustatory  branch  of  the  inferior  maxillary, 
12* 


138  ANATOMY. 

its  motor  root  from  the  facial  by  the  chorda  tympani,  its  sympathetic  root 
from  the  facial  plexus.  Its  branches  are  distributed  to  the  submaxillary 
gland,  its  duct,  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth. 

Describe  the  Cervical  Ganglia.  They  are  3  in  number  on  each  side,  of 
which  the  superior  is  the  largest,  communicate  with  each  other,  and  are  as  fol- 
lows, viz. — 

Superior  Cervical  Ganglion,  lies  behind  the  carotid  sheath  opposite  the  2d 

and  3d  cervical  vertebrae.      Its  branches  are  distributed  to  the  carotid, 

cavernous,  and  pharyngeal  plexuses,  and  one  of  its  internal  branches  is 

the  superior  cardiac  nerve  going  to  the  cardiac  plexus. 
Middle  Cervical  Ganglion,  on  the  superior  thyroid  artery,  opposite  the  5th 

cervical  vertebra,  and  gives  off  the  middle  cardiac  nerve  to  the  cardiac 

plexus,  also  communicating  branches. 
Inferior  Cervical  Ganglion,  on  the  superior  intercostal  artery,  between  the 

neck  of  the  1st  rib  and  the  transverse  process  of  the  7th  cervical  vertebra. 

It  gives  off  several  communicating  branches  and  the  inferior  cardiac  nerve 

to  the  cardiac  plexus. 

What  are  the  other  Ganglia  of  the  Sympathetic  ?  There  are  on  each 
side  of  the  vertebral  column  11  or  12  dorsal  ganglia,  4  or  5  lumbar,  5  sacral, 
besides  the  single  coccygeal  Ganglion  Impar  in  which  terminates  the  double 
chain.  Connected  with  the  viscera  are  many  ganglia,  from  which  branches 
ramify  around  the  arteries  in  plexuses  named  from  their  locations. 

Describe  the  Splanchnic  Nerves.  They  are  3  in  number  on  each  side, 
and  are  derived  from  branches  of  the  6  lower  thoracic  ganglia,  as  follows, 
viz. — 

Great  Splanchnic,  from  branches  of  the  6th  to  the  loth,  connecting  with  the 
upper  six,  and  passes  through  the  posterior  mediastinum,  perforates  the 
cms  of  the  diaphragm,  to  the  semilunar  ganglion. 

Lesser  Splanchnic,  ixonx  the  loth  and  1 1 th,  passes  through  the  diaphragm 
with  the  great  splanchnic,  to  the  coeliac  plexus. 

Smaller  or  Renal  Splanchnic,  from  the  last  thoracic  ganglion,  also  perforates 
the  diaphragm,  and  ends  in  the  renal  and  coeliac  plexuses. 

Describe  the  Solar  Plexus.  This  plexus,  called  also  the  "  abdominal 
brain,"  is  a  network  of  nerves  and  ganglia,  chiefly  formed  by  the  splanchnic 
nerves  and  the  right  pneumogastric.  It  lies  behind  the  stomach,  and  in  front 
of  the  aorta  and  the  crura  of  the  diaphragm,  surrounding  the  coeliac  axis  and 
the  root  of  the  superior  mes;enteric  artery.  Its  two  largest  ganglia  are  the 
Semilunar  Ganglia  situated  in  front  of  the  crura  of  the  diaphragm.  From  it 
are  del-ived  branches  which  form  Plexuses  over  most  of  the  abdominal  arteries, 
as  follows : — 


THE  SYMPATHETIC   NERVE. 


W 


Phrenic.      Gastric.       Splenic.  Renal.  Superior  Mesenteric. 

Cceliac.         Hepatic.      Suprarenal.      Spermatic.       Inferior  Mesenteric. 

Mention  some  other  Plexuses  of  the  Sympathetic  system.  They  art 
very  numerous ;  besides  those  already  mentioned,  the  most  important  are  tht 
following  : — 

Carotid  and  Cavernous  Plexuses,  on  the  internal  carotid  artery. 
Meningeal  Plextts,  on  the  middle  meningeal  artery. 
Facial  Plexus,  surrounding  the  facial  artery. 

Cardiac  Plexuses,  the  deep  in  front  of  the  bifurcation  of  the  trachea,  the 
superficial  in  front  of  the  right  pulmonary  artery;  the  first-named  lies 
beneath  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  the  latter  beneath  it. 
Coronary  Plexuses,  anterior  and  posterior,  accompanying  respectively  the  left 

and  right  coronary  arteries. 
Aortic  Plexus,  on  the  sides  and  front  of  the  aorta  between  the  superior  and 

inferior  mesenteric  arteries. 
Hypogastric  Plexus,  on  and  between  the  common  iliac  arteries;  supplying 

the  viscera  of  the  pelvic  cavity. 
Inferior  Hypogastric  or  Pelvic  Plexuses,  two  in  number,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  rectum  and  bladder.     Their  branches  are  the — 

Inferior  Hemorrhoidal  Plexus.  Small  Cavernous  Nerve. 

Vesical  and  Prostatic  Plexuses.  Large  Cavernous  Nerve. 

Vaginal  Plexus.  Uterine  Nerves. 


The  End 


CATALOGUE  No.  7. 


A    CATALOGUE 

OF 

Books  for  Students; 

INCLUDING   A    FULL    LIST    OF 

The  ? Quiz-Compends  f 


AND   MANY    OF 

THE  MOST  PROMINENT 

Students'  Manuals  and  Text-Books 

PUBLISHED   BY 

P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO., 

Medical  Booksellers,  Importers  and  Publishers, 
No.  1012  WALNUT  STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


***  For  sale  by  all  Booksellers,  or  any  book  will  be  sent  by  mail, 
postpaid,  upon  receipt  of  price.  Catalogues  of  books  on  Dentistry, 
Pharmacy,  etc.,  supplied  upon  application. 


THE  PQUIZ-COMPENDS? 

A  NEW  SERIES  OF  COMPENDS  FOR  STUDENTS. 

For  Use  in  the  Quiz  Class  and  when 
Preparing  for  Examinations. 

Price  of  Each,  Bound  in  Clotli,  $1.00    Interleaved,  $1.25. 


Based  on  the  most  popular  text-books,  and  on  the  lec- 
tures of  prominent  professors,  they  form  a  most  complete 
set  of  manuals,  containing  information  nowhere  else 
collected  in  such  a  condensed,  practical  shape.  The 
authors  have  had  large  experience  as  quiz  masters  and 
attaches  of  colleges,  with  exceptional  opportunities  for 
noting  the  most  recent  advances  and  methods.  The 
arrangement  of  the  subjects,  illustrations,  types,  etc.,  are 
all  of  the  most  improved  form,  and  the  size  of  the  books 
as  such  that  they  may  be  easily  carried  in  the  pocket. 

No.  1.    ANATOMY,     (niustrated.) 
A  Compend  of  Human  Anatomy.     By  Samuel  O.  L. 
Potter,  m.A.,  m.d.,  U.  S.  Army.  With  63  Illustrations. 

*'  The  work  is  reliable  and  complete,  and  just  what  the  student 
needs  in  reviewing  the  subject  for  his  examinations." — The  Physi- 
cia«  and  Surgeon's  hivestigator ,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

•"  To  those  desiring  to  post  themselves  hurriedly  for  examination, 
this  little  book  will  be  useful  in  refreshing  the  memory." — New 
Orleans  Medical  and  Surgical  yournal. 

"  The  arrangement  is  well  calculated  to  facilitate  accurate  memo- 
rizing, and  the  illustrations  are  clear  and  good." — North  Carolina 
Medical  journal. 

Nos.  2and3.    PRACTICE. 

A  Compend  of    the   Practice  of    Medicine,   especially 
adapted  to  the  use  of  Students.  By  Dan'l  E.  Hughes, 
M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  CHnical  Medicine  in  Jefferson 
Medical  College,  Philadelphia.     In  two  parts. 
Part  I. — Continued,  Eruptive,  and  Periodical  Fevers, 
Diseases  of  the  Stomach,  Intestines,  Peritoneum,  Biliary 
Passages,  Liver,  Kidneys,  etc.,  and  General  Diseases,  etc. 
Part  II. — Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System,  Circu- 
latory System,  and  Nervous  System ;    Diseases   of  the 
Blood,  etc. 

*4(.*  These  little  books  can  be  regarded  as  a  full  set  of 
notes  upon  the   Practice  of    Medicine,   containing   the 


THE  ?  QUIZ-COMPENDS  ?. 


Synonyms,  Definitions,  Causes,  Symptoms,  Prognosis, 
Diagnosis,  Treatment,  etc.,  of  each  disease,  and  includ- 
ing a  number  of  new  prescriptions.  They  have  been 
compiled  from  the  lectures  of  prominent  Professors,  and 
reference  has  been  made  to  the  latest  writings  of  Pro- 
fessors Flint,  Da  Costa,  Reynolds,  Bartholow, 
Roberts  and  others. 

"  It  is  brief  and  concise,  and  at  the  same  time  possesses  an  accu- 
racy not  generally  found  in  compends." — yhs.  M.  French,  M.D., 
Ass't  to  the  Prof,  of  Practice,  Medical  College  of  Ohio,  Cincinnati. 

"  The  book  seems  very  concise,  yet  very  comprehensive.  .  .  . 
An  unusually  superior  book." — Dr.  E.  T.  Bruen,  Demonstrator 
of  Clinical  Medicine,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

"  I  have  used  it  considerably  in  connection  with  my  branches  in 
the  Quiz-class  of  the  University  of  La." — y.  H.  Bemiss,  New 
Orleans. 

"  Dr.  Hughes  has  prepared  a  very  useful  little  book,  and  I  shall 
take  pleasure  in  advising  my  class  to  use  it." — Dr.  George  IV. 
Hall,  Professor  of  Practice,  St.  Louis  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons. 

No.  4.    PHYSIOLOGY. 

A  Compend  of  Human  Physiology,  adapted  to  the  use 
of  Students.  By  Albert  P.  Brubaker,  m.d..  De- 
monstrator of  Physiology  in  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia. 

"  Dr.  Brubaker  deserves  the  hearty  thanks  of  medical  students 
for  his  Compend  of  Physiology.  He  has  arranged  the  fundamental 
and  practical  principles  of  the  science  in  a  peculiarly  inviting  and 
accessible  manner.  I  have  already  introduced  the  work  to  my 
class." — Maurice  N.  Miller,  M.D.,  Instructor  in  Practical  His- 
tology, formerly  Demonstrator  of  Physiology,  University  City  of 
New  York. 

"  'Quiz-Compend'  No.  4  is  fully  up  to  the  high  standard  estab- 
lished by  its  predecessors  of  the  same  series." — Medical  Bullet  in 
Philadelphia. 

"  I  can  recommend  it  as  a  valuable  aid  to  the  student." — C.  N. 
Ellimvood,  M.  D. ,  Professor  of  Physiology,  Cooper  Medical  Col- 
lege, San  Francisco. 

"  This  is  a  well  written  little  book." — London  Lancet. 

No.  5.     OBSTETRICS. 

A  Compend  of  Obstetrics.   For  Physicians  and  Students. 

By  Henry  G.  Landis,  m.d..  Professor  of  Obstetrics 

and  Diseases  of  Women,  in  Starling  Medical  College, 

Columbus.     Illustrated. 

"  We  have  no  doubt  that  many  students  will  find  in  it  a  most  val- 
uable aid  in  preparing  for  examination." — The  American  fournal 
of  Obstetrics. 

"  It  is  complete,  accurate  and  scientific.  The  very  best  book  of 
its  kind  I  have  seen." — y.  S.  Knox,  M.D.,  Lecturer  on  Obstetrics 
Rush  Medical  College,  Chicago. 


THE  ?  QUIZ-COMPENDS 


"  I  have  been  teaching  in  this  department  for  many  years,  and  am 
free  to  say  that  this  will  be  the  best  assistant  I  ever  had.  It  is  ac- 
curate and  comprehensive,  but  brief  and  pointed." — Prof.  P.  D. 
Yost,  St.  Louis. 

No.  6.  MATERIA  ME3DIOA. 
A  Compend  on  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  Physiological  Actions  of 
Drugs.  For  the  use  of  Medical,  Dental,  and  Pharma- 
ceutical Students  and  Practitioners.  Based  on  the  New- 
Revision  (Sixth)  of  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia,  and  in- 
cluding many  unofficinal  remedies.  By  Samuel  O. 
L.  Potter,  M.A.,  M.D.,  U.  S.  Army. 

"  I  have  examined  the  little  volume  carefully,  and  find  it  just 
such  a  book  as  I  require  in  my  private  Quiz,  and  shall  certainly  re- 
commend it  to  my  classes.  Your  Compends  are  all  popular  here  in 
Washington." — John  E.  Brackett,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Materia 
Medica  and  Therapeutics ,  Howard  Medical  College,  Washington. 

"  Part  of  a  series  of  small  but  valuable  text-books.  .  .  .  While 
the  work  is,  owing  to  its  therapeutic  contents,  more  useful  to  the 
medical  student,  the  pharmaceutical  student  may  derive  much  use- 
ful information  from  it." — I\f.  V.  Pharmaceutical  Record. 

No.  7.     CHEMISTRY. 

A  Compend  of  Chemistry.     By  G.  Mason  Ward,  m.d., 
Demonstrator  of  Chemistry  in  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege, Philadelphia.    Including  Table  of  Elements  and 
various  Analytical  Tables. 
"  Brief,  but  excellent.  ...  It  will  doubtless  prove  an  admirable 

aid  to  the  student,  by  fixing  these  facts  in  his  memory.    It  is  worthy 

the  study  of  both  medical  and  pharmaceutical   students   in   this 

branch." — Pharmaceutical  Record,  New  York. 

No.  8.    VISCERAL  ANATOMY. 

A  Compend  of  Visceral  Anatomy.     By  Samuel  O.  L. 

Potter,  m.A.,  m.d.,  U.  S.  Army.    With  40  Illustrations. 

***  This  is  the  only  Compend  that  contains  full  descriptions  of  the 
viscera,  and  will,  together  with  No.  i  of  this  series,  form  the  only 
complete  Compend  of  Anatomy  published. 

No.  9.  SURGERY.  lUustrated. 
A  Compend  of  Surgery;  including  Fractures,  Wounds, 
Dislocations,  Sprains,  Amputations  and  other  opera- 
tions, Inflammation,  Suppuration,  Ulcers,  Syphilis, 
Tumors,  Shock,  etc.  Diseases  of  the  Spine,  Ear,  Eye, 
Bladder,  Testicles,  Anus,  and  other  Surgical  Diseases. 
By  Orville  Horwitz,  a.m.,  m.d.,  with  43  Illustra- 
tions. 
Price  of  Each,  Cloth,  $1.00.    Interleaved  for  Notes,  $1.25. 


STUDENTS'  MANUALS. 


TYSON,  ON  THE  URINE.  A  Practical  Guide  to 
the  Examination  of  Urine.  For  Physicians  and  Stu- 
dents. By  James  Tyson,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Path- 
ology and  Morbid  Anatomy,  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. With  Colored  Plates  and  Wood  Engravings. 
Fourth  Edition.  i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50 

GILLIAM'S  PATHOLOGY.  The  Essentials  of 
Pathology;  a  Handbook  for  Students.  By  D.  Tod 
Gilliam,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Physiology,  formerly  Pro- 
fessor of  Pathology,  Starling  College,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
48  Illustrations.  i2mo,  cloth,  ^2,00 

BRUEN'S  PHYSICAL  DIAGNOSIS.  The  Phy- 
sical Diagnosis  of  the  Heart  and  Lungs.  By  Edward 
T.  Bruen,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Clinical  Medicine, 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
written and  Rearranged.  With  new  and  original  Il- 
lustrations. 1 2mo,  cloth,  ^1.50 

HEATH'S  MINOR  SURGERY.  A  Manual  of 
Minor  Surgery  and  Bandaging.  By  Christopher 
Heath,  m.d..  Surgeon  to  University  College  Hospital, 
London.     6th  Edition,     115  111.     i2mo,  cloth,  ^2.00 

MUTER'S  ANALYTICAL  CHEMISTRY.  Prac- 
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m.d.  8vo,  cloth,  ^2.50 

VIRCHOW'S  POST-MORTEMS.  Post-Mortem 
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2d  Ed.     4  Lithographic  Plates.         i2mo,  cloth,  ^1.25 

DULLES'  ACCIDENTS  AND  EMERGEN- 
CIES. What  To  Do  First  in  Accidents  and  Emer- 
gencies. A  Manual  Explaining  the  Treatment  of 
Surgical  and  other  Accidents,  Poisoning,  etc.  By 
Charles  W.  Dulles,  m.d.,  Surgeon  Out-door  De- 
partment, Presbyterian  Hospital,  Philadelphia.  Col- 
ored Plate  and  other  Illustrations.        32mo,  cloth,  .75 

ATTHILL,  ON  WOMEN.  Clinical  Lectures  on 
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M.D.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  With 
many  Illustrations.   i2mo,  paper  covers,  .75 ;  clo.,^1.25 


STUDENTS'  MANUALS. 


MARSHALL  AND  SMITH,  ON  THE  URINE. 

The  Chemical  Analysis  of  the  Urine.  By  John  Mar- 
SHALL,  M.D.,  Chemical  Laboratory,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Prof.  E.  F.  Smith.  Illus.  Cloth,  ^i  oo 

MEARS'  PRACTICAL  SURGERY.  Surgical 
Dressings,  Bandaging,  Ligation,  Amputation,  etc.  By 
J.  EwiNG  Mears,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Surgery,  in 
Jefferson  Med.  College.  227  Illus.   i2mo,  cloth,  ^2.00 

BENTLEY'S  BOTANY.  Student's  Guide  to  Struc- 
tural, Morphological  and  Physiological  Botany.  By 
Prof.  Robert  Bentley.   660  Illustrations.    In  Press. 

BLOXAM'S  LABORATORY  TEACHINGS. 
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C.  L.  Bloxam.     89  Illustrations.     i2mo,  cloth,  ^1.75 

TYSON,  ON  THE  CELL  DOCTRINE;  its  His- 
tory and  Present  State.  By  Prof.  James  Tyson,  m.d. 
Second  Edition.     Illustrated.  i2mo,  cloth,  $2.00 

MEADOWS'  MIDWIFERY.  A  Manual  for  Stu- 
dents. By  Alfred  Meadows,  m.d.  From  Fourth 
London  Edition.     145  Illustrations.    8vo,  cloth,  ^2.00 

WYTHE'S  DOSE  AND  SYMPTOM  BOOK. 
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Articles  of  the  Materia  Medica,  etc.  Eleventh  Edi- 
tion.        32mo,  cloth,  ^i.oo;  pocket-book  style,  $1.25 

PHYSICIAN'S  PRESCRIPTION  BOOK.  Con- 
taining Lists  of  Terms,  Phrases,  Contractions  and 
Abbreviations  used  in  Prescriptions,  Explanatory  Notes, 
Grammatical  Construction  of  Prescriptions,  etc.,  etc. 
By  Prof.  Jonathan  Pereira,  m.d.  Sixteenth  Edi- 
tion.        32mo,  cloth,  ^i.oo;  pocket-book  style,  $1.25 

POCKET  LEXICONS 

CLEAVELAND'S  POCKET  MEDICAL  LEXI- 
CON. A  Medical  Lexicon,  containing  correct  Pro- 
nunciation  and  Definition  of  Terms  used  in  Medi- 
cine and  the  Collateral  Sciences.  Thirtieth  Edition. 
Very  small  pocket  size. 

Cloth,  75  cents;  pocket-book  style,  ^i.oo 

LONGLEY'S  POCKET  DICTIONARY.  The 
Student's  Medical  Lexicon,  giving  Definition  and  Pro- 
nunciation of  all  Terms  used  in  Medicine,  with  an 
Appendix  giving  Poisons  and  Their  Antidotes,  Abbre- 
viations used  in  Prescriptions,  Metric  Scale  of  Doses, 
•tc.  24mo,  cloth,  ^i.oo;  pocket-book  style,  I1.25 


STANDARD  TEXT-BOOKS, 

AND   WORKS    FOR    REFERENCE. 


BLOXAM'S  CHEMISTRY.  Inorganic  and  Organic,  with  Ex- 
periments.    Fifth  Edition.     Revised  and  Illustrated. 

8vo,  cloth,  $4.00;  leather,  $5.00 

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"  I  have  become  thoroughly  convinced  of  its  great  value,  and 
have  cordially  recommended  it  to  my  class  in  Yale  College." — 
Prof  David  P.  Smith. 

"  I  have  examined  it  with  some  care,  and  think  it  a  good  book, 
and  shall  take  pleasure  in  mentioning  it  among  the  works  which 
may  properly  be  put  in  the  hands  of  students." — A.  B.  Palmer, 
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gaft,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan. 

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BIDDLE'S  MATERIA  MEDICA. 

Ninth  Revised  Edition. 
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sor of  Materia  Medica  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia. 
The  Ninth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised,  and  in  many  parts  re- 
written, by  his   son,  Clement   Biddle,  m.d..   Past  Assistant 
Surgeon,  U.  S.  Navy,  assisted  by  Henry  Morris,  m.d. 

CLOTH,  $4.00  ;  LEATHER,  $4.75. 
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A.  A.  Smith,  New  York,  June,  1883. 

"  The  standard  '  Materia  Medica '  with  a  large  number  of  medi- 
cal students  is  Biddle's." — Btiffalo  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 
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and  will  supply  students  with  a  reliable  guide." — Chicago  Medical 
Journal. 

***  This  Ninth  Edition  contains  all  the  additions  and  changes  in 
the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia,  Sixth  Revision. 


4®»An  Encyclopedia  of  Medical  Knowledge."®^ 

INDEX  OF  DISEASES; 

WITH  TREATMENT  AND  FORMULA. 

By  THOS.  HAWKES  TANNER,  M.D. 

REVISED  AND  ENLARGED  BY  DR.  BROADBENT. 

Octavo,  Cloth.    Price  $3.00. 

***  The  worth  of  a  work  of  this  kind,  by  so  eminent  a  professor 
as  Dr.  Tanner,  cannot  be  over-estimated.  -As  an  aid  to  physicians 
and  druggists,  both  in  the  country  and  city,  it  must  be  invaluable. 
It  contains  a  full  list  of  all  diseases,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order, 
with  list  of  formulae,  and  appendix  giving  points  of  interest  regard- 
ing health  resorts,  mineral  waters,  and  information  about  cooking 
and  preparing  food,  etc.,  for  the  invalid  and  convalescent.  The 
page  headings  are  so  indexed  that  the  reader  is  enabled  to  find 
at  once  the  disease  wanted  ;  its  synonyms,  classification,  varie- 
ties, description,  etc.,  with  the  course  of  treatment  recommended 
by  the  best  authorities,  and  is  referred,  by  number,  to  the  several 
prescriptions  that  have  proved  most  efficacious.  These  prescrip- 
tions are  also  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  easily  referred  to,  with 
directions  how  to  use  them,  when  to  use  them,  and  what  diseases 
they  are  generally  used  in  treating.  The  directions  for  cooking 
foods  and  preparing  poultices,  lotions,  etc.,  are  very  full.  The 
work  will  be  found  specially  useful  to  students  and  young  physicians. 


RICHTER'S  CHEMISTRY. 

A  TEXT-BOOK  of  INORGANIC  CHEMISTRY  for  STUDENTS. 

By  PROF.  VICTOR  von  RICHTER, 

University  of  Breslau, 

Authorized  Translation  from  the  Third  German  Edition, 

By  EDGAR  F.  SMITH,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Wittenberg  College,  Springfield^  Ohio: 

formerly  in  the  Laboratories  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; Member  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Berlin. 
12mo.  89  Wood-cuts  and  Col.  Lithographic  Plate  of  Spectra.  $2.00 

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presentation  of  the  theories  and  facts  of  the  science.  These  are 
usually  taught  apart,  as  if  entirely  independent  of  each  other,  and 
those  experienced  in  teaching  the  subject  know  only  too  well  the 
trouble  encountered  in  attempting  to  get  the  student  properly  in- 
terested in  the  science  and  in  bringing  him  to  a  clear  comprehension 
of  the  same.  In  this  work  of  Prof,  von  Richter,  which  has  been 
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been  rapidly  disposed  of,  theory  and  fact  are  brought  close  together, 
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facilitate  its  use. 


JUST  PUBLISHED. 


RiCHTER's  Inorganic  Chemistry. 

FROM    THE   THIRD    EDITION. 

A  Text-Book  for  Students,  in  which  the  Theory  and  Facts  of  the  Science  of 
Chemistry  are  brought  together  and  their  intimate  relations  clearly  shown. 

A  TEXT-BOOK  OF  INORGANIC  CHEMISTRY.  By  Prof.  Victor 
VON  RiCHTER,  University  of  Breslau.  Authorized  Translation  from  the 
Third  German  Edition,  by  Edgar  F.  Smith,  m.a.,  ph.d.,  Member  of  the 
Chemical  Society  of  Berlin,  Prof,  of  Chemistry,  Wittenberg  College, 
formerly  in  the  Laboratories  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  89 
wood-cuts  and  colored  plate  of  Spectra.     i2mo.     424  pages. 

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lator as  Prof.  Smith. 

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MARSHALL  &  SMITHES 

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THE   CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS   OF  THE   URINE.     Based  in  part  on 
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BIDDLE'S 

Materia  Medica. 

NINTH   REVISED  EDITION. 

'ConUint   all   Chaneas   in   the    Naw    Pharmacopcsla.) 

Recommended  as  a  Text-booh  at  Yale  College,  University  of  Michigan, 

College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Baltimore,  Baltimore  Medical 

College,  Louisville  Medical  College,  and  a  number  of  other 

Colleges  throughout  the  United  States. 

BIDDLE'S  MATERIA  MEDICA.  For  the  Use  of  Students 
and  Physicians.  By  the  late  Prof.  John  B.  Biddle,  m.d., 
Professor  of  Materia  Medica  in  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia.  The  Ninth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised,  and 
in  many  parts  rewritten,  by  his  son,  Clement  Biddle,  m.d., 
Assistant  Surgeon,  U.  S.  Navy,  assisted  by  Henry  Morris, 
M.D.  Containing  all  the  additions  and  changes  made  in  the 
last  revision  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia.     Octavo. 

Ready. 
Bound  in  Cloth.     Price  $4.00;   Leather,  $4.7S. 

BUOOMMEITDATIONS. 

"  It  will  be  found  a  useful  handbook  by  students,  especially,  who  may  be 
under  the  instruction  of  its  able  and  accomplished  author." — American  Med- 
ical yournal. 

•'  In  short,  it  is  just  the  work  for  a  student,  embracing  as  it  does  what  will 
be  discussed  in  a  course  of  lectures  on  materia  medica." — Cincinnati  Medical 
News. 

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disease  are  duly  and  judiciously  noted.  Students  will  certainly  appreciate  its 
shapely  form,  grace  of  manner,  and  general  multum  in  pa}-vo  style." — Ameri- 
can Practitioner. 

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ard text-book  in  several  leading  colleges." — New  York  Medical  Journal. 

"  It  contaii|s,5^n  a  condensed  form,  all  that  is  valuable  in  materia  medica, 
and  furnishes  the  medical  student  with  a  complete  manual  on  this  subject." — 
Canada  Lancet. 

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proof  of  the  value  in  which  it  is  held  by  the  profession." — Medical  and  Surg- 
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is  Biddle's." — Buffalo  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

"The  larger  works  usually  recommended  as  text-books  in  our  medical 
schools  are  too  voluminous  for  convenient  use.  This  work  will  be  found  to 
contain  in  a  condensed  form  all  that  is  most  valuable,  and  will  supply  students 
with  a  reliable  guide." — Chicago  Medical  Journal. 

*^*  This  Ninth  Edition  contains  all  the  additions  and  changes  in  the  U.  S. 
Pharmacopoeia,  Sixth  Revision. 

P.  BliASHSTON,  SON  &  GO..  Publishers  and  BookseUars, 
1012  WALNUT  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA. 


00513159 

M    lllllillllllllll  ^ER 


DiS€      3    1378   00513    1597      IdrCIl. 

SEVENTH   REVISED  EDITION. 

Recommended  at  thirty-five  of  the  principal  Medical  Colleges  in  the  United 

States,  including  Bellevue  Hospital,  New  York,  University  of 

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A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES  OF 
CHILDREN.  By  J.  Forsyth  Meigs,  m.d.,  one  of  the 
Physicians  to  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  Consulting  Physician 
to  the  Children's  Hospital,  etc.,  and  William  Pepper,  m.d,. 
Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Provost  and  ex-officio  President  of  the  Faculty,  Physician  to 
the  Philadelphia  Hospital,  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians, etc.  The  Seventh  revised  and  improved  edition.  In 
one  volume,  of  over  looo  royal  octavo  pages. 

Price,  in  Cloth,  $6.00;  Leather,  $7.00 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Tlie  rapid  sale  of  six  large  editions  of  Drs.  Meigs  and  Pepper's  work  on 
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The  whole  work  has  been  again  subjected  to  an  entire  and  thorough 
revision.  Some  articles  have  been  rewritten;  many  additions  made;  and  great 
care  observed  by  the  authors  that  it  should  be  most  effectually  brought  up  to 
the  light,  pathological  and  therapeutical,  of  the  present  day. 

The  publishers  have  very  many  favorable  notices  of  the  previous  editions, 
received  from  numerous  sources,  foreign  and  domestic.  They  append  a  few 
from  leading  journals,  which  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  value  placed  upon 
it,  both  as  a  text  book  for  the  student  and  a  work  of  reference  for  the  Genei-al 
Practitioner. 

"  It  is  the  most  complete  work  upon  the  subject  in  our  language.  It  contains  at  once  the 
results  of  personal  and  the  experience  of  others  ;  its  quotations  from  the  most  recent  authori- 
ties, both  at  home  and  abroad,  are  ample,  and  we  think  the  authors  deserve  congratulations 
for  having  produced  a  book  unequaled  for  the  use  of  the  student,  and  indispensable  as  a 
work  of  reference  for  the  practitioner." — American  Medical  Journal. 

"  But  as  a  scientific  guide  in  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  children,  we 
do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  we  have  seldom  met  with  a  text-book  so  complete,  so  just,  and  so 
readable,  as  the  one  before  us,  which  in  its  new  form  cannot  fail  to  make  friends  wherever  it 
shall  go,  and  wherever  great  erudition,  practical  tact,  and  fluent  and  agreeable  diction  are 
appreciated."— American  Journal  of  Obstetrics. 

"  It  is  only  three  years  since  we  had  the  pleasure  of  recommending  the  Fifth  Edition  of 
this  excellent  work.  With  the  recent  additions,  it  may  safely  be  pronounced  one  of  the  best 
and  most  comprehensive  works  on  diseases  of  children  of  which  the  American  practitioner 
can  avail  himself,  for  study  or  reference." — Neiv  York  Medical  Journal. 


P.  BliAKISTON,  SON  &  CO..  PubUshers  and  Book8*Uttrs. 
1012  WALNUT  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA. 


